LIGHTS! CAMERA! SAFETY! A Health and Safety Manual for Motion Picture and Television Production by Michael McCann, Ph.D., C.I.H. -------------------------------------------------------------- Copyright c 1991 by Center for Safety in the Arts Copyright c 1998 Michael McCann ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without prior written permission from the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and articles. All inquiries should be addressed to: michael.mccann@worldnet.att.net. This book was written with the help of public funds from the New York State Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Training and Education Program. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- PREFACE Lights! Camera! Safety! is a natural outgrowth of the work the Center for Safety in the Arts has been doing on hazards in the arts for the last 14 years. Starting in 1986, CSA began to intensively research, and provide training and technical assistance to unions, employees and employers on hazards in the entertainment industry. This was accomplished with grants from the New York State Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Training and Education Program. Our interest in hazards in the motion picture and television industries was stimulated by the pioneering activities of Sandy Richman, then Co-chair of the Stunt and Safety Committee of SAG (Screen Actors Guild) and AFTRA (American Federation of Television and Radio Artists), and President of the Professional Stuntman's Federation. Sandy alerted us to the many problems involved with safety on the set. As I began to research this area, I assumed with many others that the outcry over the deaths of Vic Morrow and two Vietnamese children during the filming of a helicopter and explosions scene for "The Twilight Zone: A Movie" had led to a great increase in safety in motion picture production. However, the statistics I gathered indicated the opposite - accidents and deaths were still increasing (see discussion in Chapter 1). In addition, the trial of John Landis, the Director of "The Twilight Zone", and four others for manslaughter was taking place at that time. When they were acquitted, many people i n the industry expressed the feeling that this acquittal meant business would go on as usual. This is not to say that nothing was being done about this safety problem. A coalition of entertainment unions, including the Screen Actors Guild (through their Stunt and Safety Committee), Directors Guild, and IATSE, worked with the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP) to form the Labor/Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. This committee developed a series of Safety Bulletins listing guidelines for a variety of hazardous situations. Similar work has been going on in Ontario, Canada through the Ontario Film and Television Indus try Section 11 Advisory Committee, a tripartite of labor, management and government, and in Australia. However, what was missing was an overall approach to the problem of health and safety in motion picture and television production. There did not appear to be any organized attempt to address the entire problem. That is, there were few formalized health and safety programs on sets. In addition, we found many different sources for information on hazards and suitable safety precautions, many of which were generally unknown to the entertainment industry. As a result, we decided to write a health and safety manual for motion picture and television production. And that is how Lights! Camera! Safety! came into existence, with the help of funding from the NYS Department of Labor. Chapters 1 and 2 of the book discuss the types of hazards in motion picture production, and a general approach to health and safety planning. Chapters 3-5 discuss selecting a location, preproduction hazards, and general health and safety on location. High risk situations, including special effects and stunts, are the topics of Chapters 6-8. Finally, Chapters 9 and 10 discuss medical services on location and appli cable laws and regulations affecting film production. We tried to compile into one book information from a wide variety of sources: from our own research into areas like fogs and smoke, makeup, etc; from government regulations; and from recommendations of the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee and the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. I hope that readers will find this a useful approach. Credits Finally I want to thank people who helped with this book. Major editing and advice came from Angela Babin and Karen Giacalone, both CSA staff members. In addition, a wide variety of people in and out of the industry provided information on particular sections, and reviewed the manuscript. These include: Stephen Arnold, M.D., Entertainment Medical Specialists Lloyd Caldwell, fight director Richard Cohn, Local 52, International Alliance of Theatrical and Stage Employees John G. Degenkolb, fire protection engineer Lt. James DiGiovanna, Aerobureau, Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department Craig Feied, M.D., Lifestar International Celia Hamilton, Alliance of Canadian Television and Radio Artists Michael Kinter, American Federation of Television and Radio Artists Robert Marcus, Esq. Ingrid E. Newkirk, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals James D'Orta, M.D, International Medical Consulting Lee Proimos, Fireman's Fund Sandy Richman Eugene Shapiro, Local 771, International Alliance of Theatrical and Stage Employees Dale Smith, Office of Compliance and Surveillance, Center for Devices and Radiological Health Dick Smith, make-up artist John Sucke, NY Executive Director, Screen Actors Guild Bryan Unger, National Representative, International Alliance of Theatrical and Stage Employees Barron Winchester, Dasic/Winchester Group Stephen A. Wolf, Wolf Stuntworks Gary Zeller, Zeller International I would like to give special credit to Angela Babin for the cover design, and to David Lindner for the cover photography. Naturally, all errors in the book are my responsibility. However, I hope there are few. Michael McCann, Ph.D., C.I.H. November, 1991 CHAPTER 1. WHAT IS THE PROBLEM? There are many occupational health and safety hazards associated with motion picture and television production. An obvious example is the professional stunt performer jumping off a cliff or crashing a car. However, as we will see, the risk is not just to stunt performers during these stunts; others can also be affected. In addition, there are a multitude of other occupational hazards that are found on motion picture and television sets and locations, including chemical and safety hazards during preproduction, ordinary fire hazards, special effects, heat and cold, as well as ordinary medical problems ranging from bee stings to heart attacks. Lack of quick access to adequate medical facilities, especially when filming at remote locations, can often exacerbate the problem. FATALITY/INJURY STATISTICS Fatalities The Center for Safety in the Arts has compiled a list of 40 fatalities from 1980-89 in motion picture and television production (see Table 1-1). This includes fatalities in American films and in films shot abroad by American companies or their subsidiaries. Of these 40 fatalities, 21 occurred while doing stunts or special effects. Only 8 of the 21 stunt or special effects fatalities involved stunt performers; the other stunt fatalities included 4 camera operators or related crew, 6 actors, 1 pilot, and 2 bystanders. The important conclusion to be drawn from this is that stunts and special effects put not only stunt performers at risk, but also everyone else on the set as well. Of the remaining 19 fatalities, all 9 of the fatalities that occurred during ordinary filming, and 5 of the 10 non-filming fatalities involved helicopters (and one airplane accident). The rest of the fatalities involved accidents on the set (electrocution, a crane accident, and being hit by a truck and a steel beam, and a blank gun accident). High risk stunts are clearly not the only hazard on the set. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table 1-1. Motion Picture/Television Production: Fatalities 1980-89 1980 Rodney Mitchell (cameraman) TV Series: "Dukes of Hazzard". Circumstances: car chase 1980 Robert Van Der Kar (cameraman) TV Series: "Magnum PI". Circumstances: helicopter accident 1980 unknown stuntwoman * Film. Circumstances: fall from roof. 1980 unknown male (producer) * Film: unknown Circumstances: hit by steel beam 1981 Jack Tyre (stuntman) Film: "Sword and the Sorcerer". Circumstances: falling off cliff stunt. 1981 Boris Sagol (director) TV Film: "World War III". Circumstances: helicopter accident 1981 unknown male (camera assistant) * Film. Circumstances: hit by truck 1982 Jack Tandberg (cameraman) TV Film: "The Five of Me". Circumstances: car chase 1982 David Perrin (stunt pilot), Jaron Anderson (mechanic), Nigel Thornton (helicopter pilot). Film: "High Road to China" Circumstances: helicopter crash en route to location in Yugoslavia 1982 Vic Morrow, Myca Dinh Lee, Renee Chen (performers) Film: "The Twilight zone". Circumstances: helicopter accident. 1983 Joseph Leonard Svec (skydiver) Film: "The Right Stuff". Circumstances: skydiving accident 1984 Jon Eric-Hexum (actor) TV Series: "Cover-Up". Circumstances: blank gunshot 1985 Art Scholl (stunt pilot) Film: "Top Gun". Circumstances: airplane accident 1985 Reid Rondell (stuntman) TV Series: "Airwolf" Circumstances: helicopter accident 1985 Claudio Cassinelli (actress), Don Nasca (pilot) Film: "Hands of Stone". Circumstances: helicopter accident 1985 Rich Holley (pilot) Film: "Runaway Train". Circumstances: helicopter accident en route to Alaska filming location 1985 unknown stuntman * Entertainment production. Circumstances: fall from height. 1986 Dar Robinson (stuntman) Film: "Million Dollar Mystery". Circumstances: motorcycle stunt 1986 Bruce Ingram (cameraman) Film: "The Wraith". Circumstances: car chase 1986 Martin Wenzel and Conrad Wenzel (bystanders) Film: "Gor". Circumstances: gas cylinder explosion-fire scene in South Africa. 1986 unknown fatality ** Film: unknown Circumstances: crane accident 1987 Victor Magnotta (stuntman) Film: "Skip Tracer". Circumstances: car stunt 1987 4 unknown fatalities Film: "Braddock: "Missing in Action III". Circumstances: helicopter crash in Philippines. 1988 Patrick Dungan (electrician) Film: "Men Don't Leave". Circumstances: electrocution 1989 Geoff Brewer (stuntman), Gadi Danzig (camera man), Michael Graham (key grip), Jojo Imperial (pilot), Don Marshall (gaffer). Film: "Delta Force 2". Circumstances: helicopter crash in Philippines. 1989 Clint Carpenter (stuntman) Film: "Hired to Kill". Circumstances: helicopter stunt in Corfu. 1989 Tobi Halicki (director) Film: "Gone in 60 Seconds II". Circumstances: falling water tower special effect. Sources: * National Traumatic Occupational Fatality Database (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) ** California Division of Labor Statistics and Research news clippings from the Cinema: Accidents file of the Lincoln Center Library for Performing Arts. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Injuries and Illnesses Accurate statistics on the number of accidents and illnesses in motion picture and television film production are difficult to obtain. It is also difficult to correlate information from different sources since definitions within the industry vary. The Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of Labor provided national information for the motion picture production and services industry for 1985 and 1986 based on the Annual Surveys of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses. For 1986, they reported 4,240 recordable occupational illnesses and injuries in full-time workers, of which 1,600 involved lost workdays. The data for 1985 was about the same in total injuries but 10% higher for lost workday injuries. Table 1-2 shows the number of disabling, nonfatal injuries in motion picture production resulting in more than one lost workday for the years 1980-1988, compiled by the California Division of Labor Statistics and Research. These statistics indicate a definite increase in injuries and illnesses over this time period. During this period, California also reported 13 fatalities directly related to film production. This gives a ratio of 1.5 fatalities per 1000 injuries. This is 3 times higher than the 1988 California average of 0.5 fatalities per 1000 injuries, and higher than the ratio for manufacturing and construction. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table 1-2. Disabling, Nonfatal, Work-related Injuries and Illnesses. Motion Picture Industry. California, 1980-1988. Year Injuries 1980-1982 2,588 1983-1985 2,962 1986-1988 2,968 Total 8,518 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Screen Actors Guild (SAG) has also done several studies, based on accident reports submitted by member companies of the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP). One study, reported in Variety in 1985, reported 600 injuries and illness in SAG members between 1982 and 1984. Of those injured, 53% were stunt performers. About 80% of the injuries occurred while filming. In addition, 80% occurred on location, as compared to in studios. A breakdown of the 1982 injuries showed that 34% were due to falls, 21% to smoke and chemical inhalation, 10% to auto accidents, 7% to fight scenes, 7% to equipment failure, 5% to horses, 5% to motorcycles, and 11% to other causes. In conclusion, the statistics indicate there has been an increase in the number of injuries in motion picture and television production over the last several years. Furthermore, the fatality/injury ratio reported earlier for California indicates a higher risk of death, compared to most other industries, once a person is injured. CAUSES OF INJURIES Common Hazards Motion picture and television film production often pose a number of unique fire hazards and risks to life safety as compared to routine fire hazards in commercial buildings because filming and other activities take place in temporary and varying locations. Common hazards are ordinary occurrences that might be associated with most commercial film productions. Examples of these fire and life safety hazards include blocked exits and emergency routes, electrical and lighting hazards, accumulation of combustible materials, smoking, welding and cutting operations, hot surfaces, combustible tents, and inadequate refueling facilities. Filming in remote areas or other countries can make these hazards an even greater risk due to inadequate fire fighting capabilities or the lack of direct and quick access to the filming location by fire fighting personnel and equipment. Location Hazards There are a variety of hazards related to filming on location. In cities, for example, old buildings and warehouses are often used. These buildings can present safety hazards due to unstable walls, broken staircases, falling ceilings, etc. In addition, there can be environmental hazards, such as crumbling asbestos insulation, left-over waste chemicals, and contaminated pigeon droppings. Possible hazards while filming on location in the country include insect stings, contacts with poisonous plants, accidents in mountainous areas, heat-related diseases in deserts, frostbite in cold weather conditions, and drowning in rivers and lakes. Drowning is not the only water hazard around rivers, lakes, oceans, swamps, etc. Other hazards can include poisonous reptiles, contaminated water, flash floods, boating accidents, hypothermia in cold water, and underwater hazards such as undertows and hidden rocks. There is also concern about unusual local health hazards. For example, outdoor filming in many parts of the Northeast could mean having to take special precautions against Lyme Disease caused by deer ticks. In foreign countries, there would be concern about vaccination requirements, possible current epidemics or other local endemic diseases (such as dysentery and typhoid), contaminated water supplies, etc. In addition, local political instability and street violence are causes for concern. Traveling to location is also a serious hazard, since four of the fatalities discussed above involved helicopter travel to the location. Preproduction Hazards The construction and painting of sets - whether in a studio, or on location - can involve a wide variety of health and safety hazards. Construction can involve accidents with scaffolding, ladders, machinery, vehicles, welding equipment, electrical equipment, etc. In addition, welding, wood dust and scraps, flammable solvents, and other combustible materials can present fire hazards. Scenic painting presents many health hazards due to exposure to hazardous solvents, paints and other coatings, dyes, fire retardants, polyurethane foams, and a wide variety of other chemicals. While these hazards can be minimized with proper ventilation in a scenic shop, often fabrication of sets and props on location is difficult to ventilate adequately. Filming Hazards As discussed in the section on Fatality and Injury Statistics, stunts are the main single cause of fatalities in motion picture production. A stunt can be defined as any action sequence that involves greater than normal risk of injury to performers or others on the set. A SAG analysis of films in 1982 found that major causes of injuries and illnesses were falls, smoke and chemical inhalation, auto accidents, fight scenes, equipment failure, horses, and motorcycles. Most of these are stunt-related. Other filming situations which would be considered stunts because they could involve an increased risk of injury or illness include: being a passenger in a stunt car, driving a background car or being a pedestrian in a car chase scene, heat exposure during a desert scene, cold exposure during repeated filming of a scene involving a walk in a cold mountain stream, and underwater or swimming scenes. A major cause of the increasing number of fatalities and accidents involving stunts has been the demand for realism and increasingly more dangerous stunts. For example, 9 of the 21 stunt-related fatalities since 1980 involved helicopters, one example being the death of stunt performer Clint Carpenter while filming "Hired to Kill" in Corfu in 1989. In past years, many of these helicopter scenes would have been simulated - not live action. Even normal filming sequences involving helicopters is hazardous, since 8 of the 9 ordinary filming fatalities involved helicopters (the other involved an airplane). The lack of proper emergency medical care has also been a contributing factor in several filming fatalities. This is typified by the 1983 death of famed stuntman Dar Robinson while filming a motorcycle sequence in Arizona. There was not adequate on-site emergency medical care, nor any provision for emergency evacuation. After waiting about two hours for an ambulance, the film crew loaded him into a station wagon and started driving towards a local hospital. He subsequently died. Medical experts have said that Dar Robinson might have survived and recovered had he received immediate attention from a qualified emergency specialist, had proper and timely emergency transportation, and treatment at a properly staffed and equipped emergency room. Such poor emergency medical care is not restricted to remote location filming. In filming "Sanctuary" in New York City in 1988, two stuntmen got glass in their eyes during a scene involving windows exploding from machine-gun fire. Because advance arrangements had not been made, they had to wait over two hours in the emergency room of a hospital before being treated. Although advance arrangements will not guarantee quick treatment if more serious cases are present, lack of these arrangements can result in delayed medical treatment. Special Effects Hazards Special effects can include fire, pyrotechnics, firearms, fogs and smoke, rain and snow, lightning, lasers, wind and sand storms, computer and model simulations, and a multitude of other situations. The most dangerous types of special effects involve the use of fire, pyrotechnics, and firearms. Many of these special effects scenes are also stunts since actors are involved. The death of Vic Morrow and two children during the 1982 filming of "The Twilight Zone: a Movie" involved a special effects explosion which caused the helicopter to crash onto the actors. Other types of hazardous fire and pyrotechnics special effects include car explosions, simulated bullet hits, burning buildings, flames, flash pots, etc. Firearms are also a potential hazard, whether live ammunition or blanks are used. In 1984, the actor Jon Eric-Hexum accidentally killed himself when he pointed a blank-loaded gun at his head and shot himself during the filming of the TV Series "Cover-Up". There have been many other accidents involving supposedly "safe" blank ammunition. Smoke and fogs used on the set can create respiratory irritation, which, although obviously less dangerous than pyrotechnics and similar special effects, can cause serious asthma attacks and short-term irritation, necessitating production delays. Other special effects can create specific hazards. Examples are the use of lasers, electrical equipment, and chemicals to create specific effects. Camera Crew Hazards As described earlier, 5 of the 30 stunt-related fatalities were camera operators. The camera crew can often be at high risk in stunts because they are so close to the action, or even part of it. The classic example is the 1980 death of Rodney Mitchell and the injuring of 8 others during filming of an episode of the "Dukes of Hazzard". The TV camera truck carrying 12 crew members overturned during rehearsal of a car chase scene. Actual stunts are not the only risk to the camera crew. During normal filming, cameras can be located on moving vehicles, fixed wing aircraft, helicopters, scaffolding, overhead cranes, mobile elevating devices, boats, etc., which can involve risks of equipment failure, falls, collisions, and other accidents. Medical Emergencies Stunts are not the only cause of major traumatic accidental injury that can result in death and disability on a set or location. Falls, machinery accidents, falling sets, non-stunt related motor vehicle accidents, etc. can also occur. Of course, many of these accidents can result in minor injuries and in lost time. In addition, medical problems, both major and minor, can arise, and preexisting chronic medical problems can be exacerbated. Examples can include asthma attacks, heart problems, appendicitis, colds, infections, and insect stings. These types of medical problems can affect anyone on the set. The greater the number of people on the set, the greater the chances of someone becoming ill or being injured. A major factor in determining the outcome of such medical emergencies can be the quality of local medical care. Another factor can be the time to reach adequate medical facilities. Even in a major American city like New York City, this can be a problem due to traffic and slow ambulance response time. In rural areas or in many foreign countries, the local level of medical care might not meet modern medical standards, or the time to reach medical care too long. In such situations, adequate on-site medical services would be necessary. For example, during the 21-day shoot of the James Bond film, "The Living Daylights", in the Moroccan desert, the on-site medical team treated 496 patients, at least 9 of whom would have had to be immediately evacuated if they were not equipped for on-site surgery. Aside from the serious danger of loss of life or health, such injuries and illnesses can result in enormous cost increases associated with delays in production, canceled projects, possible lawsuits, costs of health care, increased workers' compensation rates, lawsuits, and, of course, budget overruns. This can affect the production company, distribu- tion company, insurance companies and everyone on the stage or location. REFERENCES Backstage. (June, 1990). Set Fatalities: It Isn't Just Performers. Backstage. Bahr, C.R. (1989). Fatalities and disabling non-fatal work-related injuries and illnesses, motion picture industry, California, 1980-1988. Division of Labor Statistics and Research, California Department of Industrial Relations. Personal communication. Conroy, C. (1988). Movie Production and Television Production Work-related Deaths, 1980-1985 from National Traumatic Occupational Fatality Database. Division of Safety Research, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown. Personal communication. Davidson, R. (December 17, 1980) Scenery and Rigging Accidents Deadly. Variety. Eisenberg, W.M. (1988). Occupational injury and illness incidence rates for select industries, 1985 and 1986. Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor, Washington, DC. Personal communication. Farr, L. (March 13, 1982). TV's Daring Stunts: Are the Thrills Worth Dying For?. TV Guide. Robb, D. (March 6, 1985). Almost 600 SAG Members Hurt on the Job in Last Three Years, Variety. Robb, D. (March 5, 1987). Stuntman's Death Casts Doubt on Adequacy of Safety Guides. Variety. The Hollywood Reporter. (October 29, 1987). Emphasis on Realism Blamed for Increase in Stunt Mishaps. The Hollywood Reporter. CHAPTER 2. PLANNING FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY WHO IS RESPONSIBLE? In selecting a location, who determines if that location is too hazardous or what special precautions might be needed? Who decides if a particular scene is hazardous and needs stunt performers? Who makes the decision that a particular stunt or special effect is too risky and that a safer alternative should be used? Who has the authority to stop a stunt, special effect or other hazardous situation? These questions and similar ones are basic to the issue of safety in motion picture production. Responsibility for health and safety in motion picture and television film production can be controversial due to the complex management relationships within the industry. According to the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the employer is legally responsible for maintaining a healthy and safe workplace. The problem can be determining who is the employer, and who is an independent contractor. See Chapter 10 for detailed information on health and safety laws and regulations affecting motion picture production. The following section attempts to define the various employ- er/employee relationships within the motion picture and television film production industries, as they apply to safety. Production Company One standard type of motion picture production company is the independent. The production company is usually owned by the producer, who is also an employee of the production company. This production company then hires the actors, camera crew, director, stunt performers, preproduction crew, etc. Some of these, for example, the director and stunt coordinator, may be independent contractors, rather than salaried employees. As the employer, the production company is legally responsible for health and safety, even if the producer delegates authority to the director for day-to-day production of the film. Motion Picture Studio Motion picture studios are companies that own facilities where motion picture shooting takes place. They also distribute the films. The studio has its own employees and is responsible for their safety. Many major studios in fact have their own health and safety department. Production companies rent space from the studios to produce a film. Even though the facilities are owned by the studios, the production company is still responsible for safety conditions for its employees while working in the studio facilities. Of course, if the studio is negligent and an employee of the production company is injured, that employee could sue the studio in a third party suit (see Chapter 10). Television Studio Television production, for example soap operas, can be done in either network studios or independent television studios. In some instances the television studio is the direct employer, hiring everyone, including the producers, directors, actors, crew, special effects operator, etc. In this case the television studio is responsible for the safety of everyone involved in the filming. Since the studio is the direct employer, it would only be liable for workers' compensation from injured employees. Director The director actually supervises and controls production of the film. He or she chooses the actors and other personnel. The director is hired by the production company or television studio. As the representative of the producer, the director is responsible for ensuring safe working conditions on the set. In motion picture production, the director is usually an independent contractor, not an employee. The director is often employed by a "loan-out" company, which he or she might own. In that case, it is not the director that is hired by the production company, but the loan-out company. As an independent contractor, the director can be held liable and sued by employees of the production company (or other independent contractors) if his or her negligence causes someone to be injured. In television, the director is usually a direct employee of the television studio and thus cannot be sued by another employee. The director can however be sued by an independent contractor. Director of Photography The Director of Photography is an employee of the production company, and is responsible for determining the location of the cameras and lights. The Director of Photography may also be involved in determining the feasibility of shooting a particular scene. As such, he or she has an important role in determining the safety of the camera crew and performers in a scene. Key Grip The key grip is the person in charge of the Grip Department. On many films, the key grip is the individual responsible for the safety of sets, scaffolding, rigging, camera dollies and cranes, vehicles, and general safety procedures. Accordingly, he or she can play an important role in planning for health and safety. Stunt Performers Stunt coordinators are often independent contractors. They usually are responsible for the safe performance of the stunt and supervise everyone involved in it. As independent contractors, stunt coordinators have been sued by actors or other employees of the production company when a stunt goes wrong and someone is injured. Of course the stunt coordinator can sue the production company if he or she was injured through the negligence of the production company or its employees. Individual stunt performers are usually employees like other performers. Special Effects Operators In motion picture production, and increasingly in television production, special effects operators are independent contractors. Pyrotechnics operators have to be licensed in most states and are held legally responsible for the transportation, storage and safe use of pyrotechnics. Despite this, the producer is still responsible for the safety of his or her employees since the producer or director hired the special effects operator. Unions The many unions involved in motion picture production can play a major role in health and safety. The unions are not responsible for providing a safe workplace; that is the responsibility of the employer. Unions are legally responsible, however, for representing the interest of their members, including health and safety interests. Writing health and safety language into contracts, processing health and safety grievances, informing their members of health and safety hazards, maintaining union health and safety committees, and participating in joint labor/management health and safety initiatives are all ways in which motion picture and television unions are involved in health and safety. In many instances, the unions might have more knowledge of health and safety problems in motion picture production than do the production companies and directors. Employees Actors, camera operators, wardrobe attendants, grips, and other employees are responsible for following employer health and safety rules, OSHA regulations, and reporting hazardous conditions and accidents to their supervisors. All employees can file OSHA complaints if they believe that unsafe conditions are not being remedied, and unionized employees can also file health and safety grievances with their union. HEALTH AND SAFETY PROGRAM Since the producer (or production company) is legally responsible for the safety of all its employees, and may be subject to suit by independent contractors, it is the producer's job to set up an effective health and safety program. An adequate health and safety program will reduce the number of injuries, fatalities and illnesses during production. Aside from the serious problems of loss of life and health, injuries or illnesses can dramatically increase costs associated with delays in production, canceled projects, possible lawsuits, health care expenses, workers' compensation rates, lawsuits, and, of course, budget overruns. This can affect the production company, distribution company, insurance companies and everyone on the stage or location. This section will give some recommendations for the establishment of a health and safety program that will protect everyone on the set and yet not unnecessarily limit creativity. What is a Health and Safety Program? The establishment of a formal, working health and safety program is a proven way to prevent injuries and illnesses due to fires, accidents or overexposure to chemicals. An effective health and safety program can also reduce workers' compensation claims, lessen the likelihood of negligence suits, lower workers' compensation and liability insurance premiums, and provide a mechanism to ensure compliance with OSHA regulations. There are three basic characteristics of an effective health and safety program: 1) the active support of the producer, 2) the designation of specific individuals as responsible for the functioning of the health and safety program, and 3) defined activities to carry out the objective of reducing injuries and illnesses. Management Support The active support and involvement of management is crucial since the production company controls the budget and allocation of resources, including time, necessary to carry out a health and safety program. By law, the primary responsibility for safety rests with the employer. The most important visible step in showing management support for a health and safety program is the issuing of a policy statement by the producer. The policy statement should formally initiate the health and safety program, give its purpose, name the person responsible for the program, list program functions, request the cooperation of all personnel, and indicate the Producer's intent to support the health and safety program and its initiatives. This policy statement should be posted and distributed to all personnel. Responsibility for the Health and Safety Program The producer should hire a safety director to develop and implement the health and safety program. While major film and television studios often have full-time health and safety staffs who are responsible for ensuring safety, most smaller production companies do not. As a result, there is often confusion as to who is actually responsible for safety and there is no overall coordination of safety responsibilities. The safety director should have experience in applicable laws, fire safety, construction safety, and the special problems of motion picture production - including temporary locations, special effects, stunts, etc. For specific activities, the safety director might delegate health and safety responsibilities to specialists. For example, the stunt coordinator is usually responsible for the safety of stunts, and the special effects coordinator responsible for special effects. However, the ultimate legal responsibility for the safety of employees still rests with the producer. Health and Safety Committees One of the most effective ways to involve others in the health and safety program is through the formation of a Health and Safety Committee. The major purpose of a Health and Safety Committee is to act as a conduit between the management and employees. Information on health and safety hazards, accidents, and recommendations are channeled from employees to the producer (or his safety representative) through the Health and Safety Committee. Similarly, health and safety policy, rules, etc. are transferred from the employer to the employees via the Health and Safety Committee. In addition the Health and Safety Committee can participate in many of the activities of a health and safety program. A Health and Safety Committee should include elected representatives of all involved unions. In addition, management should appoint its own representatives. Each committee member should have specific expertise and duties. The safety director, stunt coordinator, special effects coordinator, and any other special consultants should also be members of the health and safety committee. The optimum workable size for a Health and Safety Committee is from 6-10 people. Obviously the amount of time spent on Committee activities will vary from person to person, depending on their job. The Health and Safety Committee can participate in many of the activities of a health and safety program, such as inspections, accident investigation, training, developing recommendations, record-keeping, etc. The Health and Safety Committee should also have the authority to stop filming of a scene if they think it is too dangerous, until a proper evaluation can be made. Health and Safety Committee meetings should be held at least weekly during regular working hours. Attendance should be mandatory. Formal procedures should be adopted for the meetings and careful minutes kept and posted in a conspicuous spot. Agendas should be drawn up, made public, and followed. It is crucial that all Health and Safety Committee activities be carefully documented. For example, recommendations for correction of health and safety problems should include what is to be done, by whom, when, how changes will be made, and why the recommendations are needed. All of this should be clearly stated in the minutes. This can be important in case of possible legal action, and also to document the effectiveness of the health and safety program. Health and Safety Program Activities There are a number of crucial activities that must be carried out in order to have an effective health and safety program. These include: 1) inspections, 2) accident/illness reporting and investigation, 3) hazard evaluation and control, 4) emergency planning, 5) education and training, 6) medical services and 7) monitoring and evaluation. Inspections One of the best ways to identify potential hazards in routine operations is through regular inspections. Inspections can catch such problems as improperly stored paints, frayed electrical wires, blocked exits, missing fire extinguishers, broken ladders, etc. Checklists should be developed to aid in conducting inspections. In this way, deficiencies and hazards can be identified and corrected, hopefully before they cause an accident. Accident/Illness Reporting and Investigation Most companies have some sort of reporting mechanism for serious accidents and illnesses. Investigations of causes of accidents and illnesses can result in recommendations that can prevent reoccurrences. However, cut fingers, headaches, eye irritation, and other minor problems are often ignored until more serious manifestations such as a missing finger, broken leg, fire, or other serious injury results. If these earlier, minor problems were reported, investigated and their causes corrected, then the more serious problems might have been prevented. A formal reporting mechanism for all proven and suspect occupational illnesses, accidents and spills, including near misses, should be developed. A report form, to be filled out by the supervisor, should be provided for this purpose. Accident reports should go to the safety director or Health and Safety Committee which should designate someone to investigate the cause of the problem and to recommend corrective action. These reports can also serve as a source of information for the OSHA 100 form, for workers' compensation claims, and as documentation in case of lawsuits. Hazard Evaluation and Control Both existing activities and planned activities need evaluation. Firstly, inspection of present activities and facilities (e.g. pre- production, permanent sets) and investigation of accidents can uncover existing hazards. Secondly, measures can be taken to control these hazards. Preplanning for proposed high risk activities (e.g. stunts, special effects, hazardous camera placements) is essential to prevent accidents. Preplanning will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Emergency Planning A major component of any effective health and safety program is a detailed emergency plan for each contingency. Such emergency plans are required by OSHA regulations (CFR 1910.38). Emergency plans should cover fire, emergency evacuation, accidents, emergency abort procedures and other contingencies. Filming in remote locations, in particular, requires careful planning for emergency medical care. Emergency medical care is discussed in detail in Chapter 9. Education and Training Education and training is one of the most crucial elements of a health and safety program. Anyone using chemicals should receive education about their hazards and the processes they are using, and training in how to work safely. New employees should immediately receive an orientation lecture. All employees should receive annual refresher courses. This training is required under OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard, and by many state Right-To-Know laws (see Chapter 10). Another crucial form of training is proper coaching and adequate rehearsal time for stunts and other hazardous performing situations. This will be discussed in Chapter 6. The employer should develop a health and safety manual for use by all employees. This manual can be developed in-house or by a consultant. It should include at last the following topics: 1. The administration's health and safety policy statement 2. the role and responsibilities of the health and safety committee 3. a formalized inspection program 4. safe working procedures for the various activities 5. the institution's emergency plan 6. a list of mandatory safety rules 7. the accident/illness reporting procedure 8. procedures for obtaining safety information and equipment Every employee should be issued a copy of this health and safety manual. Medical Services A medical program should be established, especially when filming on location. This program should include medical personnel on-site for everyday medical problems, and additional provisions for emergency medical care. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 9. Monitoring and Evaluation It is essential to adequately monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of a health and safety program to ensure that the program is actually carrying out its functions of preventing injuries and illnesses, and to provide objective criteria to prove this to the management. Monitoring of a health and safety program is the day-to-day review of its progress. This ensures that inspections are being carried out, accidents and illnesses are properly reported and investigated, recommendations are actually being carried out on schedule, and finally, that health and safety training is adequate. The evaluation of a health and safety program is an overall review of the program itself to see that it is functioning properly. Often this is best done by an outside evaluator. REFERENCES McCann, M. (1986). A Health and Safety Program for Arts Institutions. Center for Safety in the Arts, New York. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1985). How To Prepare for Workplace Emergencies (OSHA 3088 Rev.), U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington. CHAPTER 3. LOCATION SELECTION The initial survey of possible filming locations should involve checking for potential hazards which could influence the selection of the site or preventive measures that must be taken. This could include checking with relevant authorities or other experts concerning particular hazards (e.g. common diseases or dangerous animals in an area, or the structural stability of a building). Once hazards are identified, then it is necessary to determine the precautions that can be taken for elimination of the hazards, or whether an alternative location might be advisable. The following section lists some of the types of hazards that can commonly be found on possible location sites, along with recommendations. GENERAL HAZARDS Animals Wild animals and poisonous reptiles can be a hazard in many outdoor areas. Under certain conditions, many animals or reptiles, including poisonous snakes, can attack humans. In addition to physical harm or poisoning, some animals can carry infectious diseases (e.g. rabies). Precautions should be taken to prevent wild animals from wandering onto the set. Feeding animals and leaving food where they can get access to it can encourage their presence. Animals used in filming are discussed separately in Chapter 8. Civil Unrest Filming in areas where local wars, civil wars, terrorism or other serious unrest is going on can be very hazardous with risks of being taken hostage, being injured or killed, or simply being cut off from supplies. Newspapers can be a source of information on major conflicts, but there are hundreds of other on-going, smaller scale conflicts that rarely get into the papers but are still a hazard. The U.S. State Department or U.S. consulate in the country of your proposed location are possible sources of information. Climate The local climate can have a direct bearing on the health of a film production crew and actors. Working at high temperatures can cause heat stroke and other heat-related diseases; cold can cause frostbite. In some situations, fatalities can result. Planning is needed to prepare for these extremes. Time spent in these environments should be minimized, and avoided if possible. Heat and cold extremes are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Communicable Diseases Different localities and countries can have health risks that are native to their area. These can include diseases transmitted by insects (see Insects below), animals (see Animals), contaminated food and water (see Food and Water), or by person to person contact. The seriousness of the health risk in a particular area should be evaluated before choosing a location. For many countries, vaccinations, inoculations or medications are recommended or mandatory for certain diseases. The Location Photographer's Handbook has an excellent section on communicable diseases in different countries. This medical evaluation should be done by an appropriately trained physician. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. Communications Dependable communications are crucial, especially in emergencies. Telephones are not reliable in many countries, or even in rural areas of industrialized countries. In isolated locations, there might not even be telephones, necessitating radio communications. For emergencies and communications on location (especially for stunts and similar hazardous situations), relevant personnel should be equipped with dedicated radiophones or similar equipment. Emergency Services The quality of local emergency services (fire department, ambulance, hospital emergency rooms, etc) is an important factor in determining whether to rely on them or to make direct provision for these emergency services. This is discussed in more detail in both Chapters 6 and 9. Food and Water In many parts of the world, contaminated food and water is a major health problem, leading to traveler's diarrhea and even more serious infections. In some areas, actual testing of water might be necessary to determine if a hazard exists. If the water is potentially contaminated, local water and ice should never be used unless boiled or otherwise disinfected (e.g. chlorinated). Bottled or canned carbonated beverages and water, wine and beer are recommended, and tea, coffee or ice should be made with boiled water. Drinking and food containers that have had possibly contaminated water in them should be adequately washed with soap and boiled water. Raw food (salads, vegetables, shellfish, fish, etc.), unpasteurized dairy products, and insufficiently cooked meat should be avoided because of possible bacteria, parasites or other hazardous organisms. Insects Insect bites can vary from being a nuisance to life-threatening if a person is allergic. In addition, many insects can carry contagious diseases (e.g. malaria, Lyme Disease, sleeping sickness, etc.). In areas where the more deadly of these diseases are common, alternate filming locations would be recommended. Precautions such as insect repellents, mosquito nets, protective clothing, etc. are suggested for filming in situations where insects are a problem. Poisonous Plants Many rural areas are covered with poisonous plants such as poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac, etc. Personnel working in these areas should be trained in the recognition of local poisonous plants which they might encounter with the use of photographs. Protective clothing - including long sleeves, shoes, and long pants -should be worn in areas with many poisonous plants. Power Film production uses enormous amounts of power, often amounting to hundreds of amps at a time. Insufficient power or a power failure can be hazardous if safety devices or equipment run on electricity. A qualified electrician should be contacted to ascertain whether local power sources are adequate, and whether alternate sources of power must be provided. See the Electricity section of Chapter 5 for more details. Transportation How convenient, reliable and safe is local transportation? In urban areas, especially in industrial countries, this might not be a problem. However, in isolated areas and in many countries, reliable transportation is not a given, and production companies might have to provide their own transportation, especially for emergencies. Travel to remote locations via helicopter or small planes has higher accident rates than commercial travel, as is typified by the 1985 helicopter death of Rich Holley while enroute to Alaska for the filming of "Runaway Train". See the discussion of helicopters in Chapter 8. Weather Local weather conditions should be evaluated. If storms, tornados, hurricanes, flash floods, etc. are a possible risk at the time you will be filming, then it would be important to keep in contact with meteorological forecasts. In some instances, it might be advisable to pick another location or time. Certain locations like dry river beds and canyons might be at high risk of flash floods and should be avoided during rainy seasons. Lightning can be a major risk on location during thunderstorms. Even minor storms, rain, etc. can create hazards during filming. SPECIAL HAZARDS This section discusses some hazards which are particular to specific types of locations. Buildings Much filming takes place in buildings, which can present special risks, particularly in old or abandoned buildings. Structural stability: Old or abandoned buildings should have the stability of ceilings, walls, floors, stairways, etc. checked by a licensed engineer to determine the building's safety. Buildings in use should have certificates of occupancy filed with the buildings department (or equiva- lent). Asbestos: Suspect materials (especially pipe and furnace insulation, sprayed ceilings, etc.) should be analyzed for asbestos content. If asbestos is present, then it would have to be removed or enclosed by licensed asbestos contractors (which can be very expensive). Otherwise, an alternative site should be chosen. Asbestos-containing materials should not be handled by crew members. No one should be exposed to asbestos, since asbestos inhalation can cause cancer and asbestosis (permanent lung scarring). Lead paint: Old, flaking paint in buildings usually contains lead and could be a risk if it becomes pulverized by filming activities and becomes airborne where it could be inhaled. The loose paint should be vacuumed with a HEPA (high efficiency) vacuum cleaner and disposed of as toxic waste, according to local regulations. Only trained personnel should do this. Chemicals: Many abandoned buildings, especially warehouses, can contain waste chemicals. These can present both health and fire hazards and should be handled only by experts. Community hazardous materials (HazMat) emergency response teams should be contacted for assistance, if they exist locally. These are usually part of the Fire Department. Biological hazards: Molds, contaminated pigeon droppings, etc. can cause allergic reactions and other illnesses by skin contact and inhalation. Filming areas should be cleaned and disinfected if such biological contamination exists. Contact the local Health Department for assistance. City Streets City streets as a filming location can present a variety of health and safety problems. The physical condition of the streets (e.g. potholes, cellars under sidewalks) can create hazards for car chase scenes, for example. Electrical wiring, telephone poles, etc. can interfere with camera cranes or other equipment. For example, an electrician was killed during the 1988 filming of "Men Don't Leave" in Baltimore when a 50-foot tall rainmaking machine struck an overhead electrical wire. Air pollution in cities can also present health hazards to susceptible individuals, especially those involved in strenuous activities. This could be a problem especially during air pollution alerts. Deserts Filming in deserts can present serious health problems. Extremely high temperatures during the day can cause a variety of heat stress diseases (see Chapter 5 for more detailed information). This can be compounded by exposure to the intense, direct sunlight and dehydration problems. Low temperatures at night can require heating and suitable clothing. Another hazard associated with many deserts is severe sandstorms. The scarcity of water and need for large amounts of drinking water can complicate supply problems. Foreign Countries All of the problems discussed in this chapter can apply to filming in foreign countries, particularly in underdeveloped countries. In addition, varying customs and mores can present potentials for intercultural conflicts which can result in misunderstanding and even violence. Mountains Mountainous locations present a variety of hazards. The physical nature of mountains can result in accessibility problems as a result of poor roads. In many instances even accessibility by helicopters can be hazardous due to uncertain and violent air current patterns. Falls, snow and rock slides, animals, storms, and even individuals getting lost are special hazards which need careful planning and local expert knowledge of conditions to provide a safe filming location. Water Filming on ponds, lakes, rivers, swamps, oceans, etc. presents a variety of special problems. Underwater hazards such as rocks, sunken ships, sudden drop-offs, swift currents and undertows, plant life, poisonous snakes, reptiles, sharks, etc. can endanger swimmers, divers, and even boats in some instances. Local authorities should be contacted to ascertain known hazards, and surveys by divers of contemplated filming locations should be conducted. Hazards should be removed or marked (unless needed for filming). Still water such as ponds, swamps or bogs should be analyzed for possible water contamination. If the contamination can't be removed, another site should be chosen. Potential upstream problems such as dams, danger of flash floods, chemical plants dumping sites, etc. should also be evaluated. In the ocean in particular, major storms can present risks to even large boats and particular attention to weather predictions and storm tracking is essential. Even small squalls on lakes could present problems for small boats or people in the water. Water temperature, especially in cold weather, can be a serious problems for people in the water due to the risk of hypothermia, and can be a factor in choosing time of filming, in addition to other precautions while filming. Small, controlled ponds located on studio property should be kept drained and filled immediately prior to use. Larger ponds inside studio property should have the water analyzed with written results available no more than 48 hours prior to use. If hazardous contaminants are present, steps should be taken to eliminate the hazard and the water retested with results available not less than 24 hours prior to use. If the contaminant cannot be removed, another location should be sought. See the discussion of filming on water in Chapter 5. REFERENCES Haas, K. (1990). The Location Photographers Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. CHAPTER 4. PREPRODUCTION Preproduction involves constructing the sets and props. They can be made in permanent scene shops or studios and then transported to the filming site, or actually constructed on site. They can consist of full-scale sets or miniature models for special effects filming. CARPENTRY Constructing sets from wood can involve the use of various woods, plywood, particle board, and plexiglas. A variety of hand and power tools are employed. Flammable and toxic contact adhesives are used in laminating formica and other materials. Painting is discussed in a later section of the chapter. Hardwood dusts can cause nasal cancer, and other respiratory problems. Cutting, sanding, etc. of plywood and particle boards results in the release of formaldehyde, which can cause respiratory irritation and allergies, and causes nasal cancer in animals. Similarly, plexiglass generates methyl methacrylate, also an irritant and sensitizer, when machined. Hand tools, powered hand tools, and fixed woodworking machines are all commonly used. These tools and machines all have safety hazards if not used properly. The following are some basic carpentry safety rules: 1. Everyone should wear safety goggles or safety glasses. A face shield may be worn over these but a face shield by itself does not adequately protect the eyes. Eye glasses are not sufficient protection. 2. NIOSH-approved toxic dust masks should be available and used when necessary. 3. Loose clothing, work gloves, neckties and dangling jewelry should not be worn around powered tools or machines. 4. The work area should always be kept clean, swept, and well-lit. Floors should be free of all debris, slippery materials, or water. 5. Never leave any machine that is running unattended. Turn off the power, and wait until the machine isn't moving before leaving the work area. 6. Safety helmets must be available to all persons working in or visiting a designated "Hard Hat Area". They must be worn at all times while in the area. 7. Hard-soled shoes or boots must be worn at all times within construction, set striking or maintenance areas; while working with heavy objects; or on location. For working on raised structures or conveyances, work shoes or boots with gripping soles should be worn. Rubber-soled boots or shoes should be worn around electrical hazards. Woodworking Machines 1. Machines should be secured. Belts, pulleys, chains, sprockets and gears must be guarded. V-belts and chain drives must be completely enclosed; if belts, shafting, couplings, keys, collars and clutches are located seven or less feet above the ground, these must be guarded from contact. 2. Machine guards should be securely attached to machines, and conform to existing standards, or be specifically designed for the particular machine. 3. Every machine needs an accessible stop switch. 4. Machines should have a master switch. It should be possible to lock the machine in the "off" position. 5. Cutting tools must be maintained and sharp. 6. Scraps and waste should be kept clear of the working surface of the machine. 7. All woodworking machines that generate considerable quantities of wood dust should be equipped with dust collectors that exhaust to the outside. Portable dust collectors are available that can be connected to several machines at once. 8. Hearing protection may be necessary since noise levels from machinery can be very high. A good rule of thumb is that hearing protection is called for when there is difficulty hearing someone one to two feet away. Powered Hand Tools 1. All electric cords must be in good condition, and inspected and maintained. Special precautions must be taken if the work is damp, or contains flammables or combustibles. 2. All guards, shields, and attachments should be in place and functioning. 3. Hand held electrical power tools must have a quick-release (dead-man) control that shuts off power when control switch is released. 4. The frame of electrical tools must be grounded and double-insulated, and thus labeled. 5. Pneumatic tools must be securely fastened to the hose. Additionally, there must be a tool retainer that restrains the attachment. 6. A muzzle should protect autofeed equipment, such as staplers, and nailers, from movement unless there is contact at the work surface. Hand Tools 1. All hand tools must be maintained in good condition, and replaced if damaged. 2. Tools should be stored safely and neatly. There should be procedures for the control of tools. For further information on the hazards and precautions for woodworking machines, powered hand tools and hand tools, see the data sheets prepared by the Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). These are available from the Center for Safety in the Arts. Scaffolding Scaffolds are used in the construction of sets, as well as for camera and lighting supports. 1. OSHA has strict regulations for scaffolding (CFR 1910.29 and 1910.29) 2. Scaffolds should be erected and dismantled by experienced personnel using the proper equipment. 3. Scaffolds should be constructed so they can support up to 4 times the maximum intended load. 4. Scaffolds should follow the Ontario 3 to 1 rule, meaning that the maximum height of a free-standing scaffold should be 3 times the narrowest side of the base. OSHA regulations allow a 4 to 1 ratio. 5. Scaffolds higher than 50 feet require approved plans provided and signed by a professional engineer. 6. Guardrails and toeboards are recommended on all scaffolds, but are required if higher than 8 feet. If the scaffold is less than 45 inches wide, then there must be guardrails on scaffolds over 4 feet. The rail should have a minimum height of 42 inches, and the toeboards should be 4 inches high. 7. Rolling scaffolds (towers) must have proper cross and horizontal bracing, and at least two of four casters or wheels must be swivel type with locking capability. People should not be allowed to ride on manually propelled scaffolds unless there is complete control of the path, the path is smooth and level, there are no overhead obstructions (especially power lines) and the workers are given time to tie down or leave. 8. The location of the scaffold, including foundation area, overhead dangers, and possible public interference must be under control of production company. 9. All towers should be plumbed and leveled. 10. Platforms should have properly decked plywood, as needed. 11. Access on scaffolding should be by properly secured ladders and proper climbing methods. The frames can be climbed, but not the braces. 12. Equipment being ferried up and down the scaffolding must be properly secured. All equipment on top must be secured to the main framework. WELDING, CUTTING AND BRAZING Welding has both health hazards and fire hazards. The metal fumes generated by the welding processes may be toxic (e.g. lead, nickel, cadmium, etc). Zinc and copper-containing metals (e.g. galvanized steel) can cause a flu-like illness called metal fume fever. In addition, arc welding processes can produce highly toxic ozone and nitrogen dioxide gas, as well as large amounts of ultraviolet radiation, which can cause eye damage and skin cancer. Safety Hazards and Fire Prevention OSHA regulations for Welding, Cutting and Brazing are found in CFR 1910.252. Paragraphs (d) and (e) of this section of the OSHA regulations are concerned with fire prevention and protection, and with ventilation. 1. A general statement of fire prevention precautions is found in CFR 1910.252(d)(2)(xv): "Cutting or welding shall be permitted only in areas that are or have been made fire safe. Within the confines of an operating plant or building, cutting and welding should preferably be done in a specific area designated for such work, such as a maintenance shop or a detached outside location. Such areas should be of noncombustible or fire-resistant construction, essentially free of combustible and flammable contents, and suitably segregated from adjacent areas." 2. OSHA requires a fire watch when welding in areas where other than minor fires could occur, if appreciable combustible material is found or exposed through openings within 35 feet of the welding, or if combustible materials adjacent to the opposite side of a metal wall or partition could ignite due to conduction or radiation. Fire watchers shall have extinguishing equipment available, and shall be trained. The fire watch shall be main- tained for at least a half hour after welding has stopped. 3. Administrative measures required by OSHA include establishing specific areas for normal cutting and welding, and establishing procedures for welding and cutting in other areas. An individual should be designated by management to be responsible for authorizing welding and cutting in areas not specifically designated for it. This individual shall inspect the area and designate precautions before authorizing such welding or cutting. 4. Cutters and welders should be suitably trained. It is recommended that at least one welder be certified by the American Welding Society. 5. Areas designated for welding, cutting and brazing should be free of flammable or combustible gases, liquids or vapors. If this is impossible, then these materials must be shielded from heat or sparks. Welding in the vicinity of painting operations can also create fire and health hazards to others in the area, as well as to welders. 6. Welding must be separated from all combustible materials which could be exposed to sparks flying through open doors, windows, cracks in walls or floors. Walls, floors, and all furnishings should be noncombustible or furnished with fire-resistant shields or guards. Floors with combustible shavings, sawdust, should be swept clean for 35 feet. Combustibles within 35 feet must be removed or protected with flameproof coverings or metal shields. 7. Welding, cutting, brazing or hot work may be done only on materials that are thoroughly cleaned of any flammable or combustible material. 8. Gas cylinders must be stored according to the regulations stated in section II-A on Compressed Gases. Acetylene must not be stored at a pressure greater than 15 psi gauge or 30 psi absolute, since above this pressure, acetylene may become unstable. Indoor storage of fuel gas may not exceed 2,000 cubic feet or 300 pounds. 9. Fire extinguishing equipment must be available and maintained. 10. Arc welders should wear clean, fire-resistant gloves and closed, long-sleeved clothing. 11. The welding machine for electric arc welding must be kept dry during use. Welding cable should be spread out during work, and neatly stored afterwards. The ground lead must be attached securely to the work. Any damaged cable must be replaced. There should be regular inspection of cable. Connectors between ground and electrode cables must be specifically designed for that purpose. Spliced cables should never be within ten feet of the operator. Welders should never coil cables around their bodies. Electrode holders not in use should be stored separate from conductive objects. Health Hazards The specific health hazards in welding, cutting and brazing depend on the type of fluxes, metals and coatings, the location of the process, the duration of exposure, and the ventilation. Certain materials require special respiratory protection and ventilation. See Table 5-1 for specific requirements. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table 5-1. Respirator and Ventilation Requirements During Welding and Cutting. Material Confined Space Indoors Outdoors Lead A or B A C Zinc A or B A - Cadmium* A or B A or B C Beryllium* A & B A & B A & B Mercury* A or B A or B C Fluorine* A or B - - Stainless steel A A A A = Mechanical local exhaust ventilation by means of hoods or booths having sufficient airflow to maintain a velocity of at least 100 linear feet per minute. B = NIOSH approved supplied-air respirator. C = NIOSH approved respiratory equipment * Only if air contamination under the most adverse conditions are within acceptable concentrations as defined by CFR 1910.1000 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. For metals not listed in the table above, there must be mechanical ventilation when there is less than 10,000 cubic feet of space per welder, if the ceiling is less than 16 feet high, or if the work is being done in an enclosed space. 2. Air velocity must be at least 2000 cubic feet per minute per welder, unless there are hoods or booths for each welder that maintain a velocity of 100 linear feet per minute. Otherwise, approved, supplied-air respirators must be used. 3. When respirators are used, OSHA requires a written respirator program that includes the selection of respirators, training in use and fit testing. (CFR 1910.36 and 1910.37) 4. Goggles, or helmets with eye protection, and hand shields must be used during welding and cutting. 5. Individuals in nearby areas must also be protected or shielded from heat, sparks, and ultraviolet rays. NFPA 51B-1962 Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Welding and Cutting Operations gives more detailed information. PAINTING Paints, lacquers, varnishes, dye solutions and other coatings are used for scenic painting. These can be solvent-based and water-based. Even water-based paints may still contain 5% or more solvents to help dissolve resin components. Some pigments in paints are toxic if inhaled or ingested, for example lead chromate (chrome yellow). Similarly, many dyes are hazardous by inhalation, and sometimes by skin contact. Spraying of paints and lacquers can result in inhalation of spray mists which can contain organic solvents if the material sprayed is solvent-based. Fine particulates from the sprayed substance can remain in the air for hours before settling. Further, they can penetrate deep into the lungs. Both solvents and propellants (e.g. butane, propane) in spray cans are fire hazards. Powdered Dyes and Pigments Most dyes dissolve in water, although some dissolve in solvents, usually alcohols. The major concern with powdered dyes and pigments is inhalation of the powder. Skin contact can also be a hazard with some dyes, although to a lesser degree. 1. Use liquid dyes and paints whenever possible to reduce risk of inhaling dusts. 2. Water-based dyes are preferred to alcohol-based dyes because of solvent hazards. If alcohol must be used, denatured alcohol or isopropyl alcohol should be used instead of the more hazardous methyl alcohol. 3. Dye and other powders can be mixed into a concentrated solution or paste inside a glove box (e.g. cardboard box with a glass or plexiglass top, and armholes in the ends). This eliminates the need for wearing a toxic dust respirator and messy cleanup procedures. The paste or concentrated dye solution can then be diluted for use as needed. 4. If a glove box is not used for mixing powders, then a NIOSH-approved respirator with a toxic dusts and mists filter should be worn. 5. Do not use bleach to remove dye stains from skin, since bleach is a skin irritant and bleach can decompose dyes to more hazardous chemicals. 6. Spraying bleach onto scenery to decolorize dyes should be done inside a spray booth, or while wearing a full-face, air-purifying respirator with acid gas canister (or half-face respirator with acid gas cartridges and goggles). Eye protection is needed. Solvents and Thinners Solvents are used to dissolve and mix with oils, resins, varnishes and inks; to remove paint, varnish, lacquers; to clean brushes, tools, and even hands. Almost all organic solvents are poisonous if swallowed or inhaled in sufficient quantity, and most can cause dermatitis after sufficient skin contact. High concentrations of most solvents can cause narcosis (dizziness, nausea, fatigue, loss of coordination, coma). Long-term exposure to solvents can cause brain damage, and depending on the solvent, damage to other organs such as the liver, kidneys, heart and reproductive system. In addition to the health hazards, most solvents are flammable or combustible. Flammable liquids have flash points below 100 F (38 C), meaning that enough vapors can collect at the surface of the volatile liquid at normal temperatures to cause a fire if a source of ignition such as a spark or flame is present. Extremely flammable liquids, such as acetone, have flash points below 20 F (-7 C) and are even a more serious fire hazard. Combustible liquids have flash points of 100 F (38 C) or above, meaning that the temperature of the liquid has to be raised above this temperature for sufficient vapors to collect at the liquid's surface to ignite. Note that even combustible materials can ignite at room temperature if they are sprayed. Thus spraying effectively converts a combustible liquid into a flammable one. 1. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets on solvents (and all other products). 2. Use the safest solvents possible. For example, mineral spirits (paint thinner), especially the odorless type, is less toxic than aromatic hydrocarbons like toluene and xylene. Avoid chlorinated solvents (methylene chloride, perchloroethylene, etc.) whenever possible because most chlorinated hydrocarbons cause cancer in animals, and are probable carcinogens in humans. 3. Avoid skin contact with solvents. In particular, do not use solvents to clean paint off hands. Baby oil or mineral oil is a good substitute. Use gloves to prevent skin contact. 4. Use solvents with adequate ventilation. According to OSHA standards (CFR 1910.1000), solvent vapors concentrations must be kept below the applicable Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs). In order to have an adequate safety factor, I would recommend keeping vapor concentrations below 1/10 of the OSHA PEL (or Threshold Limit Value, if lower). Dilution ventilation (e.g. window exhaust fan) can be used with small amounts of solvents or solvents that are not highly toxic. Otherwise use local exhaust ventilation (e.g. enclosed hood, spray booth, slot hood). 5. OSHA regulations covering the storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids are found in CFR 1910.106. 6. Keep the minimum amount of solvents practical on hand, and purchase in smallest useful container size. Large amounts of solvents or solvent-containing materials should be stored in an approved flammable storage cabinet. 7. Keep containers closed. Do not allow smoking, open flames or other sources of ignition near solvents. 8. Areas where flammable solvents are transferred should be separated from other areas and provided with proper ventilation. 9. There should be emergency procedures for spill control. 10. There should be a Class B fire extinguisher of at least 12B rating located within 10-25 feet of where flammable solvents are stored, and within 50 feet of areas where flammable solvents are used. Paints and Other Coatings Flammable lacquers, varnishes and shellacs have both serious fire and health hazards. The flammable lacquers are the most hazardous because they usually contain more toxic solvents such as toluene and xylene. Denatured alcohol found in most shellacs and for diluting dyes is less hazardous; methyl alcohol-based shellacs should never be used. Most solvent-based paints, sealers, primers, etc. are combustible, and are not a serious fire hazard at normal temperatures unless sprayed. The most common solvent in combustible paints is mineral spirits, which is a moderate health hazard. If the paints contain substantial amounts of toluene, xylene or aromatic naphtha, then they are more hazardous and may be absorbed though the skin. Aerosol spray paints are always considered extremely flammable because they usually contain propane or other flammable gases under pressure. Water-based paints and other coatings contain small amounts (typically 5-10%) of certain organic solvents that help dissolve the resin and are soluble in water. The least toxic ingredients, by inhalation, of these solvents are propylene glycol, ethylene glycol, and diethylene glycol. The last two are toxic by ingestion. Glycol ethers are more hazardous, with a major concern being reproductive problems in both men and women. Many water-based paints and coatings contain small amounts of ammonia or amines which are skin, eye and respiratory irritants. Water-based paints with mercury preservatives are also hazardous by inhalation and should be avoided. 1. Whenever possible replace solvent-based paints, coatings, etc. with water-based substitutes to eliminate the fire hazard and greatly reduce health hazards. 2. Solvent-based paints and coatings should be mixed in front of a slot hood or inside a spray booth. If powdered pigments or other powders are added that are easily airborne and inhaled, wear a toxic dust respirator. 3. Provide adequate dilution ventilation when brushing or rolling solvent-based paints and other coatings, or spray painting outside a spray booth. Powerful exhaust fans can provide this. These should be left operating until the solvents have evaporated. 4. Large scale coating operations with solvent-containing materials (several gallons at a time) can overload normal dilution ventilation systems. For this type of operation: * Apply the coating at the end of the work day to minimize exposure to personnel. * All personnel not involved in the coating operation should be out of the area. * Dilution ventilation should be provided and left operating all night to remove solvent vapors. * Carefully check to ensure all possible sources of ignition are removed and other fire precautions observed. * Personnel involved in large-scale coating operations should wear positive pressure, air-supplied respirators (e.g. self-contained breathing apparatus). 5. All spraying with flammable or combustible solvents should be done in designated spraying areas or inside explosion-proof spray booths. These spraying areas or booths should comply with the OSHA regulations for spraying finishing using flammable and combustible liquids (CFR 1910.107). 6. If aerosol spray paints are used at locations other than designated spraying areas (e.g. on the finished set), then special precautions should be taken to ensure all sources of sparks, flames, static electricity, hot metal, etc. are removed and provide local exhaust ventilation. 7. When spraying paints or other coatings containing solvents outside a spray booth (including latex paints containing small amounts of solvents), wear a NIOSH-approved, air-purifying respirator with organic vapor cartridges and paint spray (or toxic dusts and mists) filters. If there are no solvents present, only a dusts and mists filter is needed. PROPS AND MODELS Props and miniature models used in motion picture production can be made of a variety of materials, including wood, metal, plastics, etc. The hazards of working in wood and metal were considered earlier. This section will discuss the hazards of plastics and adhesives used for props and models. Plastics Resins Plastics consist of long, chain-like molecules made from smaller molecules (called monomers) linked together. Plastics resins are very hazardous because they involve working with the monomers which are often highly toxic. In addition, toxic solvents, fillers, catalysts, etc. can be used. Polyurethane two-component systems, including paints and expandable foams (AB foams), consist of a polyol component and an isocyanate component. The major hazard from these polyurethane resins is from inhalation of the isocyanates. Isocyanates are strong skin, eye and respiratory irritants and large exposures can cause chemical pneumonia. Chronic or repeated exposure at very low levels (parts per billion in air) can cause severe acute and chronic asthma. TDI (toluene diisocyanate) and MDI (4,4'-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate or 4,4'-diphenylmethane diisocyanate) are the most toxic since they are the most volatile. However, when sprayed, all isocyanates are extremely hazardous. Polyurethane two-component systems can also contain other toxic chemicals, including solvents and irritating amine catalysts. Polyester resin systems (fiberglass resins) consist of a resin, which contains a polyester polymer dissolved in styrene, and a hardener, methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEK peroxide), dissolved in dimethyl phthalate. Styrene is a strong respiratory irritant and narcotic, and requires very good local exhaust ventilation. MEK peroxide is a strong skin irritant and can cause blindness from even a few drops splashed in the eye. It is also heat and shock sensitive if the solvent evaporates. The hardener should never be mixed with acetone, since it will react with acetone to form the explosive acetone peroxide. Epoxy systems include resins, glues and paints. The epoxy resin itself usually contains diglycidyl ethers which are skin, eye and respiratory irritants and suspect carcinogens. The epoxy hardeners can include amines, anhydrides and several other chemicals. These chemicals cause skin irritation and allergies. Other plastic resins are used for props, for example in making break- away glass. Fire hazards from the solvents can be a particular hazards (see Solvents and Thinners section). 1. Polyurethane foam resins should not be sprayed due to their extreme toxicity, except in a spray booth. If absolutely essential, self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) should be worn if a spray booth is not available, or the piece is too large. SCBA should only be worn by personnel trained in its use. 2. Casting or hand layup with polyurethane foam, polyester or epoxy resins should take place inside a walk-in spray booth. The operator should wear a full-face, air-purifying respirator with organic vapor canister. 3. Large scale application of plastics resins outside a spray booth requires excellent dilution ventilation and air-supplied respirators. 4. Wear gloves, goggles, and protective clothing when working with plastics resins. Goggles or full-face respirator are needed especially when mixing polyester resin because of the risk of blindness if the MEK peroxide hardener is splashed in the eyes. 5. See Solvents and Thinners section for other precautions when working with plastics resins. Fabricating Plastics The hazards involved in working with finished plastics come mostly from the methods used to work the plastic. Burning of plastic can result in the release of carbon monoxide and other toxic gases from the decomposition of the plastic. This can also occur during sawing or machining. Heating of plastics can result in the release of unreacted monomer, plasticizers or other chemicals which are trapped in the plastic. The glues and cements used to bond plastics often contain toxic solvents and plastic monomers. See the Adhesives section for detailed information. 1. Sanding, cutting and other heating of finished polyurethane foam causes decomposition of the foam to yield toxic gases such as hydrogen cyanide. Working in a spray booth or wearing SCBA is recommended. 2. Celastic is a nitrocellulose plastic that can often be used as a substitute for polyurethane AB foams. Hand layup with celastic and acetone can be done inside a spray booth or with dilution ventilation. Although acetone is only slightly toxic, it is extremely flammable, and all OSHA requirements for handling flammable liquids must be strictly observed, especially with respect to electrical wiring and equipment. If dilution ventilation is not adequate protection due to having to work very close to the acetone, then wearing an air-purifying respirator with organic vapor cartridges is recommended. 3. Styrofoam carving, cutting and other finishing processes do not present major hazards. Dilution ventilation suitable for solvent use will exhaust any toxic gases produced by decomposition of the styrofoam. When using hot wire cutting, use lowest temperature possible to minimize decomposition. If large amounts of dust are generated, then wearing a NIOSH-approved, toxic dust respirator is recommended. 4. When cutting, sanding or otherwise creating dust when fabricating plastics, frequent vacuuming should be done to remove accumulated dust. 5. If respiratory protection is used, make sure you have the correct cartridges and filters. For polyvinyl chloride (PVC) use acid gas cartridge plus dusts and mists filter; for plexiglas use organic vapor cartridge, plus dusts and mists filter. Adhesives Many adhesives contain solvents that are toxic by inhalation and skin contact. For example, rubber cements and contact adhesives usually contain n-hexane, which can cause peripheral neuropathy (damage to nerves of hands, feet, arms, legs). Glues used in furniture repair, model making or leatherwork often contain hazardous solvents like toluene and naphthas. These are hazardous by skin contact and inhalation, and most are flammable. See Solvents and Thinners section for more information. Some adhesives work by polymerization of hazardous monomers. Epoxy glues were discussed under plastics resins. Acrylic plastic glues can contain methyl methacrylate, and instant bonding glues contain cyanoacrylates. These ingredients are skin sensitizers and irritants, and the vapors may cause headaches, loss of appetite and low blood pressure. Cyanoacrylate glues can bond skin. Woodworking glues range from polyvinyl acetate (PVA) emulsion glues that are water-based, to hazardous resorcinol formaldehyde resins that release formaldehyde gas. Formaldehyde is a skin, eye and respiratory irritant and sensitizer, and is a suspected human carcinogen. Other wood glues may contain toxic phenol preservatives. Aerosol adhesives are sprayed, resulting in the inhalation of rubber or plastic particles, along with the inhalation of various solvent and propellent ingredients. N-hexane, which can cause nerve damage, is a common solvent used in these spray formulations. Both solvents and aerosol propellants are fire hazards. 1. Substitute the safest glue possible. 2. Use solvent-based glues in a well-ventilated space (e.g. window exhaust fan). If large amounts are being used, local exhaust ventilation such as a slot exhaust hood is necessary. Placing the work table up against a window with an exhaust fan at work level is also effective. Eliminate all sources of ignition such as flames, sparks or lit cigarettes. 3. Spray adhesives could be used outdoors for occasional projects, or in a sparkproof spray booth that exhausts to the outside. 4. See also precautions under Solvents and Thinners. REFERENCES American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (1990). Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Work Environment. ACGIH, Cincinnati. American National Standards Institute. (1983). ANSI Z49.1-1983. Safety in Welding and Cutting. ANSI, New York. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. (1988). Infograms on Abrasive Wheels, Chain Saws, Hand tools, Materials Handling, Power Hand tools, Welding, Woodworking. CCOHS, Hamilton. Clark, N., Cutter, T., and McGrane, J. (1984). Ventilation. Lyons and Burford Books, New York. Industrial Hygiene Subcommittee, Alliance of American Insurers. (1986). Handbook of Organic Industrial Solvents, 6th Edition. Alliance of American Insurers, Chicago. McCann, M. (1979). Artist Beware: The Hazards and Precautions in Working With Art and Craft Materials. Watson-Guptill Publications, New York. National Fire Protection Association. (1962). NFPA 51B-1962 Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Welding and Cutting Operations. NFPA, Quincy, MA. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For General Industry, 29 CFR Part 1910. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For Construction, 29 CFR Part 1926. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC. Patty, F. (Editor). (1982). Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. Volume Two (3 Parts), Third Edition. Interscience Publishers, New York. Rossol, M. (1986). Stage Fright: Health and Safety in the Theater. Allsworth Press, New York. CHAPTER 5. ON LOCATION This chapter will discuss the hazards of filming on location. This will include general fire and life safety hazards on location, hazards to the camera crew (cameras, lights, scaffolding and rigging), costume and makeup hazards, and environmental hazards (heat, cold, water). Many of these hazards and the appropriate precautions are also applicable to permanent studios. High risk filming situations, such as special effects and stunts, will be dicussed in subsequent chapters. GENERAL FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY A permanent film studio has to meet a variety of fire and life safety codes and regulations in order to obtain a certificate of occupancy. Special permits for particular activities, for example involving pyrotech- nics special effects, may also be required. Temporary filming locations have to obtain a variety of permits for each location (see Chapter 10). Many of the recommendations mentioned here are based on the California State Fire Marshal's Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook. More complete details on fire regulations can be found in appropriate Uniform Fire Codes. Access Routes and Exits Access routes and exitways must be clearly defined by agreement with the local Fire Department. They must be kept clear in order to allow emergency vehicles to gain access to the various parts of the location, and to allow people on the location to escape quickly and easily in case of emergency. Routine inspections should be made to ensure that props, camera equipment, sets, etc. do not block agreed upon access and emergency escape routes. A particular problem can occur when filming takes place inside an occupied building. Care must be taken to not block corridors, stairways and other exits with equipment and electrical cables. Particular recommendations include: 1. Exit signs should be posted in rooms or areas containing more than 50 people. Exit lighting should be provided. 2. Maximum travel distance from any point to an exterior exit door, horizontal exit, exit passageway or enclosed staircase should be 150 feet if the building is not sprinklered, and 200 feet if the building is sprinklered throughout. 3. Exits to streets or public passways must be continuous and unobstructed by fences, walls, vehicles, etc. 4. Electrical cables passing through exit doorways and corridors must be maintained at the sides in order to minimize obstruction. 5. If normal exits are obstructed for filming reasons, alternate exits must be provided. Fire Hazards A fire starts when something that can burn is ignited in the presence of oxygen. Around a filming location, materials that may burn include dry vegetation, sawdust and wood dust from preproduction, combustible tents and other structures, fuels, flammable and combustible liquids, spray paints, and many other sources. Oxygen is always available in the air, but compressed oxygen cylinders can be a source of extra oxygen which greatly increases the fire risk. Finally, sources of ignition can include sparks from electrical equipment, hot lighting equipment and other heated surfaces, welding and cutting operations, smoking, static electricity, etc. Prevention predominantly consists of keeping materials that burn from coming in contact with sources of ignition. Combustible Materials Adequate housekeeping is the major strategy for controlling ordinary combustibles like wood scraps, wood dust, paper, rags, etc. so they are not a possible fuel source. 1. All floors, closets, platforms, etc. should be kept clear of combustible materials and rubbish. 2. Combustibles, waste materials and rubbish should be stored in approved containers or disposed of properly. 3. Keep unnecessary dry vegetation at least 20 feet from buildings. 4. Oily rags, paint rags, oily waste, or similar materials subject to spontaneous combustion should be kept in approved oily waste cans. These should be in each area where such materials are used and stored, and emptied daily. Placing these materials in buckets of water will also achieve safe storage. 5. Keep stored combustible materials away from exits and fire equipment. 6. Combustible materials used in filming such as sawdust or shavings on floors or ground must be made flame resistant or, when approved by the fire department, kept adequately damp. 7. Combustible tents should be flame-proofed. Flammable Liquids and Gases 1. Empty, liquefied petroleum gas tanks may be changed on location, but refueling must be done at authorized refueling stations or commercial refueling vendors. 2. All propane cylinders must be secured to prevent damage to the cylinder, or to personnel, from falling cylinders. This includes those on catering trucks, and ones used for fire special effects. 3. Propane heaters and other equipment must be the specified size, hoses and fittings approved for LPG service, and appliances and fittings maintained in good condition. 4. Propane heaters must not be used in tents. 5. Only approved flammable liquid safety containers with a maximum capacity of 5 gallons should be used. 6. Transferring flammable liquids and fuels should be done in a properly protected and ventilated area. 7. Refueling operations should obey the following guidelines: * Refueling operations must be attended and operated by trained personnel. * Turn off all equipment being refueled. * Fuel transfer nozzles must be held by direct hand pressure. * No smoking within 50 feet. * The refueler vehicle should exhibit a sign stating "Flammable and No Smoking" when on location. * The vehicle should carry at least one 2A-10BC fire extinguisher. Chapter 4 on Preproduction contains more information on the storage and use of flammable and combustible liquids. Fire and Other Sources of Ignition 1. Fire should not be present near combustible materials, unless the materials are part of the filming, and the have been flame proofed. 2. Equipment used to create fires should be maintained in good condition. 3. Fire extinguishing equipment and trained personnel must be present when fire effects are used. See the Fire section of Chapter 7 for more information on the use of fires during filming. 4. Smoking must be prohibited in all places where combustible or flammable materials are stored or used. This includes: * in areas where fuels, flammable or combustible liquids are stored or used * around flammable gases * around spray painting or finishing operations * where pyrotechnics or explosives are stored, mixed or used * inside tents 5. Sparks or hot surfaces such as lighting equipment, engine mufflers, and catalytic converters on vehicles should not be used near combustibles or flammable liquids or gases. Exhaust spark arrestors may be required for gasoline-powered engines. 6. Sources of static electricity should not be present around flammable liquids or gases. MOTOR VEHICLE SAFETY Automobiles, trucks, boats, airplanes, helicopters and other methods of transportation are common on film locations. Hazards from these can include traffic accidents, parking problems, use in filming, and refueling risks. Refueling was discussed in the section on General Fire and Life Safety earlier in this chapter. The use of vehicles in filming will be discussed in subsequent chapters. This section will discuss general problems. Operation of Vehicles 1. Occupants should fasten seat belts on vehicles where they are provided. This is required by OSHA. 2. Only individuals with appropriate licenses should operate vehicles. 3. Driving under unusual conditions (e.g. in deserts or off road) should only be done by individuals experienced with those conditions. 4. All relevant traffic laws should be obeyed. Parking Motor vehicles on location can become hazards if they are parked so that they obstruct fire hydrants, emergency vehicle access, or pedestrian egress from buildings or tents. In addition vehicles that contain hazardous ingredients are a risk if parked near eating areas or other areas where people congregate. 1. The transportation coordinator for the production company should work with the Fire Department to establish safe parking areas. 2. Ensure that vehicles do not block emergency access or escape routes. 3. Park vehicles needed for filming operations at least 20 feet from tents. Other vehicles should be at least 100 feet from tents. 4. Vehicles should be parked at least 100 feet from areas where pyrotechnics/special effects materials are stored or used. Multiple Dressing Room Units Trailers are commonly used on location as multiple dressing room units. 1. The driver/operator should have an appropriate chauffeur's license for driving the size of vehicle and for driving passengers (assuming people are riding in the dressing room trailer). If a policy of no riders is adopted, then this would not be necessary. 2. While parked and in use, a qualified person should be present to operate the unit. 3. Generator exhausts shall be elevated a minimum of three feet above floor level, and vented to the outside at all times. 4. Skirts or other downward projections encircling the unit shall not be closer than one foot to the ground. 5. Before refueling the vehicle or generator, the unit shall be shut down and all occupants removed. Special caution should be taken when priming the carburetor. Fueling should be done safely in accordance with all local and state laws. 6. All portable electric heaters must be equipped with safety tipover switches. Such heaters should only be used temporarily in extreme cold weather or in case of malfunction of permanent heaters. 7. A single handrail or grab bar shall be required when the floor level is over three feet high. All steps should be stable, slip proof and properly constructed. Do not use boxes, concrete blocks, etc. The steps shall be kept clear of snow, ice, mud, and other debris. 8. No anti-freeze shall be added to potable water tanks. CAMERAS The actual filming can sometimes involve placing the camera crew and equipment in hazardous situations, for example shooting from a helicopter, moving vehicle, camera crane, or side of a mountain. When this will occur, the call sheet should describe the type of hazard. There are several basic types of camera mountings: fixed tripods, dollies for mobile cameras, camera cranes for high shots, and insert camera cars for shots on moving vehicles. The following sections will discuss procedures for working safely in such situations. These safety procedures are adapted from Safety Bulletins developed by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the motion picture and television industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. A detailed discussion of safety problems involving helicopters and airplanes, as well as underwater photography will be discussed in Chapter 8 on stunts. Camera Cranes Some dollies or traveling trucks can be equipped with a counter-weighted boom for lifting the camera and operator to small heights, but for large elevations, heavy camera cranes are used. These can carry several people besides the camera. Because of the height, there are a variety of possible hazards, including power lines and other overhead obstructions, falls, high winds, and collapse of the crane. The following are some safety recommendations. 1. Camera cranes come under OSHA regulations that apply to aerial devices or lifts (CFR 1910.67). 2. The intention to use camera cranes should be noted in the call sheet to warn people to keep clear of its working radius and be responsive to the requests of the grip in charge. 3. The key or dolly grip are the only experts as to adequacy of equipment for a particular shot under given conditions. All preparation of equipment and supports should be under the control of an experienced grip designated by the key grip. 4. All lift controls should be tested prior to use. Never use incomplete or damaged equipment 5. The crane base and pedestal should be plumb level. Risers used to raise a crane should be capable of supporting the weight of crane and personnel, and be adequately braced. 6. Tracking surfaces should be both properly laid, and constructed in accordance with the supplier/manufacturer recommendations. 7. Cranes on unstable surfaces, such as sand, should have the blocking set to prevent collapse if the surface shifts. This also applies to laying track or supports over changes in surface or height. 8. The crane arm should never be left unbalanced. Wear gloves when loading or unloading uncoated lead ingots as weights. 9. Do not pass under arm of crane without permission of the grip in charge. 10. The minimum crew for a camera crane should be three people. All personnel on the platform should wear body belts and have a line attached to the platform or boom. People or equipment should not be added or removed from the crane without permission of the grip in charge. 11. There should be clear announcements and warnings concerning when and where cranes will be moved. 12. Care should be taken to ensure no contact of the crane or personnel with overhead obstructions. Similar care should be taken with camera cranes on moving vehicles. 13. A crane should not be left unattended while in use or being prepared for use. 14. Using the Ontario guidelines, the minimum distance from any part of a camera crane to live power lines should be as follows: Voltage Minimum distance 750 - 150,000 volts 10 feet (3 meters) 150,000 - 250,000 volts 15 feet (4.5 meters) more than 250,000 volts 20 feet (6 meters) OSHA regulations set the minimum distance at 10 feet up to 50,000 volts, plus 0.4 inches for every 1,000 volts over 50,000, or twice the length of the line insulator with a minimum of 10 feet. Insert Camera Cars Films involving moving vehicle scenes are a major cause of accidents to camera operators. Since 1980, four camera operators have been killed and many more injured in scenes involving car stunts, often from the vehicle hitting the stationery camera and operator, or from overturning of the camera car. Precautions connected with vehicle stunts in general will be discussed in Chapter 8. In this section I will discuss the particular problems of insert camera cars. Cameras can be mounted directly on moving vehicles that are to be filmed. This can be hazardous if the cameras and/or operators interfere with the vision of the driver. In addition, when the cameras are located on the outside of the vehicle, there are substantial risks to the camera operators. It is recommended that insert camera cars be used instead, whenever possible. Insert camera cars are vehicles that have been engineered for the mounting of cameras and the towing of the vehicle to be filmed. They can carry several people. 1. Safety checks using a checklist should be done before and after each run by qualified personnel. Records should be kept on each run. 2. All rigging should be done by experienced personnel. Ground fault circuit interrupters should be connected to electrical circuits. For filming at night, the insert camera car should have two portable tail lights attached to the towed vehicle to provide rear lighting. 3. There should be a dry run in advance of actual filming. Information on who has the authority to abort, a description of the intended action, and any possible variations, should be provided. 4. For general transportation of production personnel, the insert camera car should not carry more than nine people (including driver), according to the Industry Subcommittee to Investigate Safety Aspects of Insert Camera Cars. Ontario recommends a maximum of seven unless the camera car is designed for more. The rear of the car should carry a placard stating its maximum safe loading number. 5. While on a highway or public road, all traffic laws should be obeyed. 6. Only the operator should be in the cab while the vehicle is in motion, to ensure clear lines of sight. 7. Only essential personnel and equipment should be on the vehicle for the actual filming. 8. Only qualified stunt performers should be on the towbar or exterior of towed vehicles. 9. Special safety procedures should be developed for hazardous conditions such as bad weather, stunts, explosives etc. (See also Chapters 7 and 8.) 10. Special attention should be given to communications during filming. Any special communications procedures to be used should be discussed in advance with all involved in the scene to be filmed. One individual should be the only contact with the insert camera car operator via a dediccated, open radio channel. In case of radio silence, an alternate method of communications should be designated. 11. The following sound signals have been recommended as standard signals for the industry: a) prior to moving forward - sound 2 short blasts; b) prior to backing up - 3 short blasts; and c) emergency stop - 1 long blast. An alternative might be needed for night shooting in residential areas. 12. A copy of the guidelines should be posted on the glove compartment of the insert camera car. ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT Electrical and lighting equipment can be a major source of heat and sparks which can create a fire. In addition, the large amounts of power used on filming sites creates a severe risk of electrical shock if live wires are touched. This is particularly a problem with improperly maintained wiring, especially since the temporary nature of many film locations results in extensive use of flexible cords. The recent switch to alternating current (A/C) in many situations means many people may not be sufficiently familiar with its hazards. The need for large amounts of power also means that the source of power must be adequate. If no power is available or local power sources are not adequate or reliable, then alternate sources of power must be obtained. Examples of electrical and lighting hazards include proximity of hot lamps to combustibles and sprinkler heads, shorting of electrical wiring or equipment, inadequate wiring, deteriorated cables or equipment, fire and health hazards from carbon arcs, and inadequate grounding of equipment. The following are recommendations. For detailed information, see NABET 15 Electric Department Safety Manual (1984), and sections 520 and 530 of the National Electrical Code. Some of these recommendations are taken from electrical safety guidelines in Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Power and Distribution System 1. All electrical work and wiring should be done in accordance with requirements of the National Electrical Code by licensed electricians. Only members of the electrical crew should make electrical connections to distribution boxes. 2. One person on the crew should have responsibility for all electrical distribution. This individual should have a meter capable of reading the load on cables to ensure that balance is maintained. 3. Proper non-conducting attire should be worn at all times, including rubber-soled shoes, rubber gloves in condition of high humidity and tying-in, etc. 4. All cables, distribution boxes, etc. should use standard color coding: white - neutral; green - case or earth grounding; red, black and blue - live or hot wire; brown, yellow and orange - high voltage. 5. The electrical distribution system should have a separate ground that is not returned to neutral. 6. All electrical personnel should be aware of the load-bearing capacity of cables and boxes and not overload this capacity. 7. Flexible cords are approved by the National Electrical Code for film production because of its temporary nature. The cables, however, should be marked with gauge and/or ampacity, and should be adequate for the equipment. 8. Cables should be routed, taped down or covered to avoid people tripping over them. They should not be nailed, stapled, or tacked to wood or attached to metal pipes or other metal materials. Cables should not be in places where they can be damaged by vehicles or other equipment. 9. Cables should not be spliced; they should be connected to approved ter- minals or connectors. 10. Cables should be checked regularly for overheating, loose connections, fraying or other damage. 11. All portable generators, extensions, four-way boxes, breaker boxes, equipment, etc. should be properly grounded. Portable generators must be periodically checked. 12. When doing electrical work in or around water (rain, snow, bodies or water, wet or damp areas), observe the following: * Use safer direct current (DC) when possible. For AC, use one phase to limit voltage, and install ground fault circuit interrupters. * Wear proper clothing (rubber gloves, full water-proof suit and shoes). * Ground all instruments. * Keep connections and distribution systems dry and insulated from the ground. Tie-Ins Tie-ins to the power source (and un-ties at the end) must follow appropriate safety procedures due to the high amperages involved. Precautions include: 1. Two qualified electricians should be present. 2. Use proper equipment (ABC fire extinguisher, insulating gloves and shoes, safety goggles, insulating rubber mat, rubber for insulating between connectors, electric meter, flashlight, insulated screwdriver, gaffer tape, electrician's tape, etc.). 3. Check the type of current (AC or DC), the voltage, and amperage needs. 4. Isolate the phases from each other with nonconducting materials before tying in. 5. Use a separate ground that does not return to neutral when tying in. 6. Secure tie-in leads and clips adequately. 7. Provide fused, safety disconnect switches or boxes between power source and "on set" distribution. Lights 1. All lights and other powered equipment should be properly grounded. 2. Deteriorated or poorly maintained lighting equipment fixtures, sockets, fixture wiring, etc. should be replaced. 3. Fixtures should be turned off and disconnected from the power source before being worked on. 4. Equipment repaired on the set should be checked for continuity and polarity before reuse. 5. All lighting fixtures or stands should be properly supported to prevent tipping. Hung fixtures should have a safety chain. 6. Install ground fault circuit interrupters (for AC), when using powered equipment within 6 feet of the possibility of water splashing. 7. Open-faced equipment should have shielding to protect nearby personnel from flying glass in case of an exploding bulb. 8. High voltage gas discharge lamps - such as neons, HMIs, CSIs and fluorescents - should be properly grounded, inspected for lens cracks that could leak ultraviolet radiation, and otherwise handled with the care given high voltage equipment. Personnel using them should be aware of the ballasts used and ensure all micro safety devices are working. Only trained technicians should make repairs to these. They should be covered to protect from rain or high humidity, and ballasts grounded. Keep people away before striking the lamp. 9. All personnel on a set should be warned of the dangers of ultraviolet radiation from "arc" type lamps, and care taken to protect against skin and eye damage. 10. Carbon arcs give off sparks which can be a fire hazard and combustible materials should be removed from their area. In addition, eye protection is needed to prevent exposure to the intense ultraviolet radiation given off, and local exhaust ventilation is needed to vent toxic fumes and gases given off by carbon arcs. SCAFFOLDING AND RIGGING Scaffolding Scaffolding can be used for mounting of cameras, lighting and other equipment. Mobile scaffolds are also sometimes used. Standard precautions to be used with scaffolds were discussed in Chapter 4 in the section on Carpentry. The following are some specific recommendations related to the use of scaffolds in filming. These safety procedures are adapted from Safety Bulletins developed by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the motion picture and television industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. 1. Rolling scaffolds (towers) must have proper cross and horizontal bracing and at least two of four casters or wheels must be swivel type with locking capability. People should not be allowed to ride on manually propelled scaffolds unless there is complete control of the path, the path is smooth and level, there are no overhead obstructions (especially power lines) and the workers are given time to tie down or leave. 2. The Key Grip should determine the safe number of personnel and equipment working on a scaffold. 3. Cameras, lights and other equipment must be securely attached to the scaffold. 4. Hanging large surface areas of material such as back drapes, tarpaulins, etc. from a outside scaffold can be hazardous under certain conditions such as high winds or gusting winds due to danger of capsizing. Under such hazardous conditions, the Key Grip or other safety personnel may remove either personnel or materials from the scaffold. 5. See also Camera Crane section above for other relevant recommendations. Rigging On location and in many studios, lights are rigged to sets, scaffolding or are free standing. In many television studios, in particular, lights are hung from permanent overhead grids. The position of the lights is often adjusted by rigging systems. In addition rigging can be used to fly scenery or even people for special effects (e.g. "Superman" movies). I will not try to discuss the technical details of rigging here, but only procedures. For detailed information on rigging safety, see the Stage Rigging Handbook by Jay O. Glerum. 1. Operation, maintenance, and repair work on rigging equipment shall be done by properly trained and qualified persons. They should be knowledgeable in operation and functioning of the equipment, safe use, routine maintenance, operation of safety devices, possible dangers during proper and improper operation, and emergency procedures. 2. All rigging equipment shall be inspected before use, after alterations, and at regular intervals. 3. Be sure the load does not exceed the safe capacity of the system. 4. Follow safe procedures when loading, unloading, or operating rigging systems. Unbalanced counterweight systems should be kept on the ground, for example while loading and unloading. 5. Maintain visual contact with a moving piece at all times. 6. Warn people on the set, deck and grid before moving any rigged scenery or other object. Do not ever move set if people are underneath. 7. Maintain control of moving pieces at all times. 8. Only assigned personnel shall have access to suspended work areas such as grids and catwalks. 9. All hoisting systems should be secured to prevent accidental or unauthorized use. DRESSING, COSTUMES, AND MAKEUP Dressing Rooms Dressing rooms are used for dressing, application of makeup, resting, reviewing scripts, etc. Dressing rooms can be fixed rooms in permanent studios, or consist of multiple dressing room units (trailers) for temporary locations. 1. All dressing rooms should be heated or cooled to maintain comfortable ambient temperatures. 2. Dressing rooms, whether mobile or fixed, do not have adequate ventilation for use of volatile chemicals. Hair sprays or other aerosol sprays should not be used in these dressing rooms. Use pump sprays instead. (Occasional use of hair spray outdoors would be acceptable.) 3. Smoking should be prohibited in all dressing rooms occupied by more than one person. 4. See the Motor Vehicles section for information on the hazards of multiple dressing room units. Costumes Costumes can present sometimes hazards both to the actors wearing them and to the wardrobe attendant responsible for caring for them. In addition, the making of special costumes such as armor, masks, etc. can be hazardous. The use of plastics resins in making such materials was dis- cussed in the previous chapter under Props. Ordinary costumes do not present a hazard under normal conditions. For example, a regular costume for an actor who is working near an open fire or flame should be treated with an approved fire retardant and made of high wool or cotton content. Synthetic materials are not recommended due to their melting and flammability properties. For a stunt person in a fire scene, special protective gels and other precautions would be used on both clothing and hair (see Chapter 8). Heat and cold can be a problem if an actor has to wear a costume not suited to the climate for a particular scene. In those instances, work breaks and other protective measures might be needed. See later sections in this chapter on heat and cold. Special costumes involving metal or wood frameworks (e.g. for robot costumes) could both be heavy and hot for the person wearing them. In such instances, the materials should be as light as possible and any structural framework supported in such a way as to minimize discomfort and possible strains. The filming should be scheduled so as to minimize time spent wearing the costume. In some instances, there might have to be provision for supplying cool air to the actor inside the costume. In addition, the costume has to be designed for easy escape in case of fire or entanglement. Caring for Costumes It is important to ensure that costumes are kept clean in order to prevent mildew formation and unsanitary conditions. A wide variety of hazardous solvents, aerosol sprays, dyes, cleaning solutions, etc. are used in caring for costumes. These are commonly being used without adequate ventilation and have created health problems in the wardrobe attendants whose job it is to care for costumes. 1. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets on all cleaning and other products. 2. Whenever possible, replace the hazardous chlorinated solvents such as carbon tetrachloride, perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene and methylene chloride with safer solvents such as mineral spirits. 3. Avoid aerosol spraying whenever possible. Use pump products rather than aerosol spray cans. 4. Use water-based dyes rather than alcohol-based ones. If alcohol-based dyes are essential, use denatured alcohol or isopropyl alcohol rather than the more toxic methyl alcohol. 5. Use pre-mixed liquid dyes rather than powdered dyes. If powdered dyes are essential, mix the dyes inside a glove box made by shellacking the inside of a cardboard box (for ease of cleaning), place a glass or plex- iglass top on it, and cut two holes in the sides for arms. 6. In fixed locations, proper ventilation such as slot exhaust hoods and spray booths should be used when working with solvents or spraying. On temporary locations, I recommend using portable explosion-proof blowers/exhausters which can be set up next to the work location and ex- haust the solvent vapors to the outside through flexible ducting. 7. In instances where adequate ventilation is not present, NIOSH-approved respirators with organic vapor cartridges (and spray prefilters if spraying) may be necessary. 8. See the Solvents and Thinners section in Chapter 4. Makeup The use of theatrical makeup - face powders, rouge, cream makeups, lipsticks, mascara, hair sprays,etc. - by actors and actresses for motion picture filming is universal. However, both the process of application and the chemical ingredients in cosmetics can be hazardous. A classic example of makeup hazards occurred during the filming of the "Wizard of Oz". The original Tin Man, Buddy Ebsen, had to quit the film because he was hospi- talized with a severe allergic reaction to the aluminum paint used as makeup. This section will discuss the hazards of standard makeup used by actors. The Special Effects Makeup section in Chapter 7 will discuss the use of prosthetic devices. A wide variety of solvents, dyes and pigments, preservatives, oils, waxes, etc. can be found in various types of makeup. Many of these ingredients can cause skin irritation or allergies; certain ingredients, for example some solvents, can be absorbed through the skin. Many hair dyes are known or probable human carcinogens. With powders and aerosol spray products such as hair spray, inhalation is also a hazard. The most common type of reaction to makeup is cosmetic acne, a mild, intermittent, inflammatory reaction involving small pimples which mostly affects women in their twenties through their fifties. Animal studies have implicated a number of known acnegenic ingredients in cosmetics, including many oils, cocoa butter, oleic acid, and butyl stearate. Infections can also result. Solvents such as acetone can cause defatting of the skin, resulting in dry, cracked skin. Other chemicals that are acidic, basic, or strong oxidizers can also cause skin irritation or irritant dermatitis. Examples are sodium and potassium hydroxide used in cuticle softeners and hair relaxers, and peroxide used to lighten facial hair. Many cosmetic ingredients - called sensitizers - can cause skin allergies. Preservatives, chrome and nickel compounds found in some eye cosmetics, and acrylates and formaldehyde found in artificial nail prod- ucts, are examples of chemicals that are common sensitizers. The eyes are even more sensitive than the skin. Conjunctivitis (irritation of the membranes covering the eyeball and eyelids) is a common reaction to eye contact with many chemicals found in cosmetics. Scratching of the cornea during application of eye makeup is a common problem, especially from application of mascara. These abrasions can also become infected. Inhalation of solvents from hair sprays and other spray products is also hazardous. Methylene chloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane, for example, which are found in many aerosol spray products, can cause heart arrhythmias. Methylene chloride can also cause other heart problems, and is a probable human carcinogen. In one instance, a wardrobe attendant in the Broadway play "Sugar Babies" suffered a heart attack after using amethylene chloride-containing spray shoe dye on a bear costume. Inhalation of dust from face powders, rouges, etc., has not been shown to cause serious problems, although there have been reports of temporary irritation and allergic reactions to some powdered ingredients. The following are recommended precautions: 1. Only purchase makeup and other cosmetics that have the ingredients listed on the label. 2. Do not use old makeup. Replace makeup on a regular basis. 3. Wash hands before and after applying makeup. 4. Do not smoke, drink or eat when applying makeup. 5. Avoid creating airborne dust when applying face powders or talcum powders. 6. Avoid aerosol sprays whenever possible; use pump sprays instead. 7. Moisten brushes or pencils with clean tap water, not saliva. 8. Seek medical advice whenever eye injuries have occurred. 9. If you have a persistent skin reaction, see a dermatologist. Stop using the makeup until healing is complete. 10. If you have an allergic reaction to particular types of makeup, try to identify which ingredients are in common and might be the cause of the reaction. 11. If you have problems, try using "hypoallergenic" makeup and unscented makeup. 12. Whenever possible, use isopropyl myristate to remove makeup instead of other, more toxic solvents. 13. Use emollients or moisturizers to count