Geological Sciences/Natural Sciences 107

Introduction

First note, this course will, to the extent of my new-found ability, be on the web. My hope is to have the class schedule, summaries of each lecture, examples of examination questions, numerous illustrations, and some reading available (as the summer develops). The idea is that you should each download current material several times a week. Keep in mind that the level I hope for may be beyond my developing competence so things can go wrong from my end. Keep also in mind is that my intention is to help the students and not make it possible for them to avoid class. All students should have the elementary maturity to go to class.

This course examines a number of important questions: For example, how did geology get established as a science? How does the Earth work? An important consideration of most conclusions is "Why and how do we come to such a conclusion"? Moreover, the nature of science from the perspective of the geological sciences is repeatedly examined. Examples of geological phenomena and thought are drawn from local field trips. Therefore, the geology of the broad Chicago area is an important part of the course. All aspects of the course are important. You could easily do poorly in the course if you decide some part is trivial.

The very beginning of the course is the hydrologic cycle which the ancients (from thinkers well before Aristotle etc. through those late in the 16th century) misunderstood. The understanding of the cycling of water in the hydrologic cycle passes into an understanding the reception of and movement of the energy received on Earth from the sun (the energy that drives the properly understood hydrologic cycle). Weathering and erosion are driven by the hydrologic cycle so these topics come next. Then stream erosion (which mostly comes from the hydrologic cycle) is looked at in some detail because it was the establishment that streams commonly made the valleys in which they flow that led to the establishment of geology as a science. In particular, once one accepts that streams made their valleys, then one is forced to conclude that this activity took a long time so the common sense observation that nothing changes is demonstrated as conceivably false. This had important secondary applications. For example one notices that species of plants and animals have, for all observed time, been pretty much the same. So common sense says organic evolution is silly. However, once geology established a notion of a very much older Earth, the conclusion that evolution could have occurred even though no change is observed became possible. This led inevitably to Charles Darwin's ideas (as clearly stated by Darwin himself).

It is remarkable about streams that they make adjustments so they neither erode nor deposit (an odd conclusion). This is caused by something called equilibrium (a phenomena that occurs through all science). The first equilibrium theory was "law" [sic] (more properly -- theory) of gravity. Equilibrium explains many geologic phenomena and graded streams are our first example. In part from comparison with the stream model, models of glacial erosion and deposition, wave erosion and deposition etc., and ground water motion are developed. Most erosion and deposition phenomena are well illustrated in Chicago, so the geology of the Chicago region serves as a summary of most things covered so far.

At this time we will start examining the rock cycle and minerals (the materials out of which rocks are made). Here, some chemistry is introduced. One should note that we don't start with materials because that is not the way the science of geology began. In fact chemistry had made very little progress at the start of geology. It was some years before rocks could be chemically understood or even observed adequately (the petrographic microscope of your first lab was not invented until the 1830's and not much used for another 40 years). After rocks are considered, we look at the deformation of rocks and scale models (a remarkable discovery that size is much involved with all considerations of strength). Kelvin (next paragraph) was unaware of scalar problems.

We will then stop our general sequence and look at the challenge imposed by Kelvin. He was an important physicist who, from 1840 - 1900, seriously challenged the rational basis of geology as a science. Next radioactivity and its use in geologic time is developed (especially Boltwood's effort). This work finally overcame Kelvin's objections and, at the same time much solidified, geologic thought. Next is another pause looking at the structure of scientific arguments. This has been delayed to the point where some science has been introduced that can be used as examples.

We will then begin to look at the interior of the Earth and the materials of which all of Earth is made. The earliest steps in understanding Earth were measure of its size and shape done by the Greeks. We pass from that to Cavendish's experiment that revealed (eventually) that Earth's density was much greater than that of Earth's surface rocks (what one could see). In effect, Cavendish weighed the Earth (an important extension of Newton's work). This discovery, with some other work led to the idea of isostasy (eventually seen as mountains floating on underlying materials).

Following isostasy we look (through earth quake waves) into the deep interior of the earth and gain some insight into earthquakes and the nature of Earth's interior (presumably, a place we can never visit). A day is spent on the arguments of I. Lehmann (a Danish woman) for the existence of a solid inner core surrounded by liquid -- a quite remarkable discovery.

Eventually, we examine the discovery of plate tectonics (the modern understanding of continental drift). Plate tectonics vastly changed geologic concepts. In a way it is a development similar to that of evolution from the discovery of time. In effect, you see continents to be stable, but if you give them great time the movement of a centimeter (or a few of them) per year becomes immense in a hundred or more million years.

Finally, we will get to the history of earth (four and a half billion years in two weeks). If time permits we will look at organic evolution and the fossil record. Eventually, we will end up with some thoughts on the Gaia hypothesis.

To repeat, examples of geologic phenomena are drawn from local field trips. This means the field trips are required and essential to the course. In a larger sense, the geology of the Chicago area is an important part of the course (see above) because local examples are used to illustrate many broad generalizations.

The course consists of readings, lectures, laboratories, and field trips. All aspects of the course are important. You could easily do poorly in the course if you decide some part is trivial.

Lectures

The lectures (see above) represent the lecturer's view of some of the topics to be stressed. I have been around long enough that I have my own opinion on most geological topics -- These opinions of mine make it essential that you understand the lectures. I do not mind pertinent questions during the lecture. In fact the only question ever asked that I recall truly irritating me was "Will this be on the exam"? Therefore, if you don't understand, interrupt. I am not offended by seemingly "stupid" questions.

Laboratories

Be sure to read all of the assigned materials before the laboratory classes. You cannot be effective in the laboratory without that preparation. In the laboratory you should do everything personally. It is acceptable or even desirable to interact with your neighbors. However, don't let your neighbor do the work while you copy his/her results (or vice versa). In science, it is more important how you got the answer than it is to be right. A correct answer that you cannot defend is really no answer at all. You should note that we attempt to coordinate laboratories with the lectures, readings and other materials. However, many important topics are difficult or impossible to put in the laboratory. Therefore, significant lack of coordination is inevitable. Pay attention to the schedule; the schedule is not exactly sequential. Particularly, the Geologic Map exercise is coordinated with the Lasalle area field trip and we omitted the Chicago Area lab because we did not start the labs in the first week.

Field Trips

There are three field trips in this course of which two are scheduled and one is "self conducted" (materials are in the laboratory manual). These trips are required. In other words, if you cannot make the field trips you should drop the course. Don't wait for several weeks and then try to con me about some situation like your sister is getting married that day. Tell me now -- I may have an alternative for 2 or 3 students because I have to take the TA's who have not been to the localities. If trips are impossible, then you should take another course. If you are handicapped then talk to me immediately. My general opinion on handicapped people is the we probably can handle any problem some way. The scheduled trips take place on Saturday June 21 (8:00 AM - 6:00 PM) and Saturday July 12 (8:00 AM - 7:00 PM). We will probably return sooner, but don't count on it. The deadline for the "self conducted" trip is listed following the reading schedule. Note again, we make no guarantees on the return times. We will continue working until all geologic features have been examined and discussed. The total cost is listed in the time table for the two scheduled field trips. The university will bill you if you are registered in the course. Note that we do not allow private transportation because it creates a traffic hazard. The buses will load on Taylor Street in front of SES just before 8:00 AM. No weather condition has ever caused a trip to be canceled when I was in charge.

Keep in mind that I view the department and everyone involved to be very generous in their efforts toward field trips. It is very disheartening to have students along who hate field trips. Some of these students try to get home early by skipping to earlier buses (if we catch anyone doing this, we will issue an incomplete for the course) and therefore skip stops or who try to avoid touching rocks and soil or who try to avoid the interesting, but muddy places. Therefore, if you think you can't stand filth, mud, water, snakes, insects, nettles, blood, rain, pain, physical activity, observation and thinking under these circumstances then take some clean science such as physics. You can even avoid science and take mathematics instead.

One should dress properly on field trips. Keep in mind that the weather oftentimes changes during the day. In addition, one should note that to examine geologic features one may have to walk through mud and water. Moreover, bushes etc. (some with thorns) may tear at your clothes (and skin). It may rain or snow etc. This reminds me that I have never canceled a field trip and don't expect to this time, regardless of the weather.

Bring a lunch - including something nonalcoholic to drink. There are occasional outhouses (not everywhere) that we can use if they are open. Otherwise we do it like a bear. To wit, we never stop at gas stations etc.

Reading and Other Materials

• 1. Text: Montgomery, Carla and David Dathe 1991. Earth: Then and Now. Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque (2nd Ed.).
• 2. Laboratory Manual
• 3. Reading from Mather, Kirtley and Mason, Shirley 1939 or 1964 (reprinted) Harvard Univ. Press or Hafner --
  • 1. Kircher, Athanasius - The Subterranean World - p. 17-19,
  • 2. Perrault, Pierre - The Source of Water in Springs and Rivers - p. 20-23,
  • 3. Playfair, John - Proofs of the Huttonian theory - p. 131-137,
  • 4. Bernhardi, Reinhard - An Hypothesis of Extensive glaciation in Prehistoric Times - p. 327-328,
  • 5. Agassiz, Louis - Evidence of a Glacial Epoch,
  • 6. Marsh, George - Influence of the Forest on Floods,
  • 7. Werner, Abraham - The Aqueous Origin of Basalt, and The New Theory of Veins, and Their Mode of Formation,
  • 8. Hall, James - Marble from Limestone in the Laboratory and Results of the Slow Cooling of melted Rock, and The Role of Heat in the Consolidation of Strata,
  • 9. Spallanzani, Lazarro - On Basaltiform Lavas and the role of gases in Volcanic Eruptions - p. 101-102,
  • 10. Desmarest, Nicolas - The Volcanic Origin of Basalt, and Age Determinations in a Volcanic Region - p. 90-91,
  • 11. von Bunsen, Robert - Genetic Relations of Igneous Rocks - p. 3812-383,
  • 12. Cavendish, Henry, Experiments to Determine the Density of the Earth - p. 103 -107,
  • 13. Pratt, John - the Attraction of the Himalaya Mountains Upon the Plumbline in India, and The Deflection of the Plumbline in India and the Compensation Affect of a Deficiency of Matter below the Himalaya Mountains, and Speculations on the Constitution of the Earth's Crust - p. 393-400,
  • 14. Airy, George - An Hypothesis of Crustal Balance - p. 401-405,
  • 15. Chamberlin, Thomas - The Interior Structure, Surface Temperature, and Age of the Earth - p. 612-618,
  • 16: Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin) On the Secular Cooling of the Earth - p. 472-476.
• 4. Boltwoood, Bertram 1907 The Ultimate Disintegration Products of the Radio-active Elements. From the American Journal of Science (fourth series) - p. 77-88. This, by the way, is the original article on the use of radioactivity in determining the ages of rocks.
• 5. Bretz, J. Harlan 1940 (reprinted later) Geology of the Chicago Region. Bull. 65 Illinois State Geological Survey -- Part I -- General. Available in the Science Library (3rd floor SES) [optional reading]
• 6. Set of minerals. Purchase at the Bookstore (available at the front desk).

All readings are due on Monday of the week scheduled. Thus it would be legitimate to give a quiz on Monday (or any day thereafter) on any reading scheduled for that week.

Exams

There will be three hour exams (June 18 Wednesday, (July 7 Monday), and (July 18 Friday). The best two of these exams will count and there will be no makeups for any reason. In addition, there might be short quizzes during lectures (these usually will not be announced) and there will be a laboratory exam (July 22 Tuesday -- see laboratory schedule). The TAs tend to give short quizzes at the start of each discussion section. Note that the entire system is set up so that we never have to give makeup quizzes, labs or exams. That is we do not count everything. One hour exam, and two labs will not count. Don't miss the laboratory exam because it is given only once. The only exam one can make up is the final and then you must have a legitimate medical excuse such as a note from your coroner.

Assistance

Generally speaking, we (myself and the TAs) are readily available to the students. Usually phoning (996-6088 for R. DeMar and 996-3158 for TAs) will assure that the person desired is available. The only time I (DeMar) do not want to see students is in the morning before class. I have office hours every day at 3:00 P.M. (Unless I announce in lecture to the contrary). Moreover, I'll see students most any other time, but it is generally better to call first. However, see comments above.

Grades

The various assignments and exams will be weighted approximately as follows:

• Hour Exams (and any lecture quizzes) 30%
• Quizzes (in Disc.) 10%
• Laboratories 10%
• Laboratory Exam 10%
• Final Exam 30%
• Other (which may cause changes above) 0-10%

Field Trips: These integrate the course so many things should be clearer and we do correct the "self taught" field trip. In addition, field trip questions appear on the exams: We take attendance (twice - once at the start, then late) on field trips. If you miss the trips (as shown, for example, by being absent on a attendance sheet) you will get an incomplete (INC) for the course unless I get irritated (as I have in the past) -- then we simply lower grades.

At the end of the semester students are sometimes anxious about grades. If you want early information, supply us with a stamped, addressed postcard at final exam time. This is the only way we release early information on grades. Because of legal requirements on privacy, we never post grades or reveal them over the telephone.

Grades, by the way are given out in a meeting of the entire staff of the course. A first approximation is the numerical results, but many other factors can influence a grade. The TAs know the students better than I and know about effort and other items. The Tas have a large effect on the grades, especially at the margins ( e.g., the difference between a "B" and a "C"). For example, getting better during the semester is superior to getting worse and the TAs have this information. In other words, it is a good idea to get along with your Laboratory instructor.

Materials Distributed in Class: On frequent occasions materials will be distributed in class. Do not expect them to be available at a later date! However, unless I screw up, they will be available on the Web.

Geological Sciences/Natural Sciences 107 Summer Session 1997 Reading, Lecture, Field Trip, and Examination Schedule
June 2-6	Introduction; The hydrologic Cycle; Driving the Hydrologic Cycle Weathering; Streams; Equilibrium in Streams	Text 242-243 (and fig. 14.1)-- 69-85, 67-79, 304-305 (fig. 17.1), 284-301 (a reading topic only) Mather & Mason (here and later weeks for all required Library references except Boltwood) -- Kircher p. 17-19, Perrault p. 20-23; Playfair p. 131-137; Marsh p. 305-312
June 9-13	Glaciers (a Different eroder and depositor than streams; Waves and Beaches	Text , 257-273 (a reading topic only), 317-339, 224-240, 301-316 (a reading topic only); Bernhardi p. 327-328; Agassiz p. 329-335
June 16-20	Groundwater; Chicago (A Summary of all erosional and depositional events)--- After Hour Exam then minerals (the components of rocks) and the rock cycle	Text: 264-283; see also Bretz in Library (not on reserve). Hour Exam: June 18, 1997. Text: 15-32, Werner 138-142 Note: field trip to Palos Park area on Saturday 8:00 A.M. till 6:00 P.M.
June 23-27	Igneous Rocks; Sedimentary Rocks (This Should Remind You of weathering), Metamorphic Rocks; Structure; Scale Models	Text 36-66, 79-96; 103-117, 186-204. Spallanzani p. 101-102; Desmarest p. 90-91; Hall p. 158-167; von Bunsen p. 381-383.
June 30-July 3	Kelvin; Geologic Time; Science -- Its Character; Weighing Earth; Isostasy	Text 310-324, Learn Fig. 14.3 and Fig. 14.4; Thomson (who became Kelvin) p. 472-476; Chamberlin p. 612-618; Boltwood p. 77-88 Text 1-6, 9-10, 172-175 -- Cavendish p. 103-107; Pratt p. 393-400; Airy p. 401-405;
July 7-11	Geophysics; Earthquakes; Lehmann; Continental Drift; Paleomagnetics; Plate Tectonics	Hour Exam: Monday July 7, 1997. Text. 154-184, 134-153, 205 -- 223. Note: field trip to the Lasalle area July 12, 1971 8:00 A. M. -- 7:00 P. M.
July 14-18	Early Earth; Precambrian. Phanerozoic Earth	Text: 364 -- 393, 394 -- 450 Hour Exam Friday July 18
July 21-23	Comments on organic evolution and the Gaia hypothesis	Text: 340-363, 409-417, 451-468, 484-493
Final Exam	Thursday July 24	10:30 -- 12:30 -- F3 Lecture Center
Field trips on Saturdays June 21 (8:00 AM until 6:00 PM -- Cook County) and July 12 (8:00 AM until 7:00 PM -- Lasalle area). The "self taught" field trip is due in Discussion during the week of June 23-27. The hour exams are June 18 (Wednesday), July 7 (Monday), July 18 (Friday), 1997. Only the best two of these exams will count. Thus no makeups will be allowed for any reason. A laboratory exam will be held in the lab on Tuesday July 22, 1997. Unannounced lecture quizzes might occur.

Geological Sciences/Natural Sciences 107 Summer session 1997 Laboratory Schedule
June 3	No Labs this first Tuesday: Discussions do meet.
June 5	Lab 2: Topographic Maps
June 10	Lab 1: Introduction to Earth Materials and the Geologic Cycle
June 12	Lab 3: The Flume Experiment
June 17	Lab 4: Streams and Stream Development
June 19	Lab 5: Glaciers and Glacial Landforms
June 24	Lab 6: Waves and Shoreline Erosion
June 26	Lab 7: Geology of the Chicago region
July 1	Lab 8: The Physical properties of Minerals (Bring purchased set to class)
July 3	Lab 9: Rocks and Rock Textures
July 8	Lab 10: Crystals and Crystalline Materials
July 10	Lab 11: Geologic Maps
July 15	Lab 12: Seafloor Spreading: Continental Drift
July 17	Lab 13: Introduction to Fossils
July 22	Laboratory Exam - in Lab period -- Be sure to be on time. If you are late you will not be allowed to go back to already covered questions

Note

• 1. Take the laboratory seriously. This is an opportunity to handle and manipulate some interesting materials and apparatus.

   

• 2. Written laboratory exercises are due at the beginning of the next laboratory class (or sooner). None will be accepted late. 3. As a rule, you should attend your assigned laboratory section. Makeups (which should be rare and uncharacteristic) can occur but only by arrangement with the TA in charge of the substituted class and with your own laboratory instructor. Such makeups have to be in the same day as originally scheduled because twice a week everything is torn down and put away so later material can be put out. In effect, sickness cannot be accommodated.